(551–479 bce)
Since over the past centuries Confucius has become a subject of worship and myths it is difficult to differentiate between fact and fiction in the various accounts that describe his life and work. Some sources emphasise his aristocratic lineage (a descendant of the royal Chou dynasty), others insist that he was born in poverty. There is very little trustworthy information on his childhood. Nevertheless, according to most records Confucius (full name Kong Qiu) was born in 551 bce in Zou, the state of Lu (in today’s Shandon province, China). Despite having relatively privileged origins his father’s premature death confined the rest of the family to poverty. Confucius’s father was an officer in the Lu military, which meant that his family were neither aristocrats nor commoners but were part of the middle social stratum (shi).
In addition to losing his father at the age of 3, Confucius also lost his mother at the age of 23. Struggling to avoid utter poverty he worked as a cow herder, a shepherd and later as a keeper of granaries, the director of public pastures, a book-keeper and a clerk. He married his wife Qiguan at the age of 19 and they had two children: a son, Kong Li, and a daughter whose name, indicatively, has not been recorded. Although there is no reliable information on his education the traditional sources indicate that Confucius was a bright, hardworking and inquisitive student and that he studied ritual with the ‘fictional Daoist Master Lao Dan, music with Chang Hong, and the lute with Music-master Xiang’ (Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, 2010). Upon completion of his studies Confucius became gradually known for his teachings and was apparently followed by a group of disciples. The records indicate his gradual rise in the state administration: in 501 bce he was appointed to the relatively minor position of the town governor and through time rose to the much more influential and prestigious position of Minister of Crime. After the failed attempt to reform decentralised state power and establish a more legitimate system of aristocratic rule, Confucius created many powerful enemies and as a result was forced into self-imposed exile from Lu. From then on, he and his disciples, undertook a long and torturous series of journeys around the kingdoms of northeast and central China, spending most time in the states of Wei, Chen, Cai and Song. Although Confucius’s reputation remained high and he was occasionally welcomed to the courts of these small states, his philosophical principles were largely ignored. Near the end of his life at the age of 68, as the political situation in Lu changed, Confucius returned home. His last few years were spent in teaching the Five Classics set of texts to his remaining 70 or so faithful disciples.
Although Confucianism today is a well-established, and in some parts of Asia dominant, philosophical, and some would argue religious, tradition of thought, for much of Chinese history Confucian ideas were countered by several other philosophical traditions. Among these the most influential were Legalism, Mohism and Daoism. During the Spring and Autumn period (770–480 bce) and the Warring States period (479–221 bce) these four intellectual traditions were competing for supremacy. Although initially Mohism and Confucianism were more prominent with the unification of China under the Qin dynasty (in 221 bce), Legalism was adopted as the official doctrine of the state with Confucianism, Mohism and Daoism being largely suppressed. Nevertheless, once the Han dynasty gained power over the Qin dynasty (206 bce to ce 220), Confucianism replaced Legalism as the dominant belief system of the Chinese state and, with a few exceptions, Confucian principles remained an official state philosophy until the communist takeover in 1948.
This centuries-long symbiosis between Confucianism and the Chinese state often conceals the complexities and doctrinal conflicts that have shaped the early history of China. The Spring and Autumn period and the Warring state period were highly turbulent, violent and socially dynamic times that stimulated intellectual creativity and ultimately produced highly distinct and competing schools of thought. Even though three out of these four philosophical traditions shared some key principles such as piousness towards rulers, the glorification of Tian (the ‘mandate of heaven’) and respect for the hierarchical order, they developed very different understandings of social and political life. Legalism, most forcefully articulated by Han Fei and Shang Yang, is a utilitarian philosophy that emphasises stringent obedience to the legal system. In this view state power rests on the transparent and public system of laws that apply equally to all citizens.
Whereas Legalism was a doctrine that appealed to the rulers, military and traditional priesthood, Mohism become more popular with the technical intelligentsia, craftworkers and some merchants who were determined to challenge the status quo. Mozi, the founder of this ethical tradition, is often considered to be China’s first philosopher. He condemned the use of offensive warfare and advocated a doctrine of ‘impartial care’, which was seen in utilitarian terms, long before Bentham and Mill, as something that ‘will bring the greatest benefit to the largest number of people’ (Mozi, 2003: 10). The concept of impartial care stands for the view that an individual should care equally for all human beings regardless of their actual relationship to that individual (i.e. one’s own children should not be loved more than the children of other people). For Mozi, social conflicts arise from the absence of moral uniformity: in the original state of nature a human being cannot differentiate between right and wrong. It is the presence of the state hierarchy and especially the righteous leaders and their followers that guarantees the creation of social harmony able to balance right and wrong. Daoism (or Taoism) shares this focus on establishing harmonious relationships between human beings, but in contrast to Mohism and Legalism, Daoists oppose hierarchy and state power. For Laozi, the intellectual father of this doctrine, Dao (or Tao) is a metaphysical concept that stands for ‘the way’ or ‘the path’ behind everything that exists. It is conceived as a powerful force that generates all existence. Unlike Legalists and Mohists (and Confucians) who venerate order, discipline and division of labour, the Daoists advocate simplicity, spontaneity, moderation, humility, harmony with the nature and ‘action through non-action’ (Wu-Wei). As some sources indicate, the young Confucius was a student of Daoism and his teachings originated in dialogue with the key Daoist principles.
Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406)
In contrast to Confucius, whose biographical details are less known and shrouded in mythology, Ibn Khaldun’s life and work are well documented. Although Ibn Khaldun was born in Tunis in 1332 (AH 723) his family had aristocratic, Arab-Andalusian, origins. The Banū Khaldūns were part of the ruling elite in ninth-century Seville. Ibn Khaldun’s family emigrated to Tunis just before the fall of Seville in the Reconquista in 1248. While most of his male family members held political offices under the Hafsid dynasty in Tunis, Ibn Khaldun’s grandfather and father abandoned politics and became members of a mystic order. This highly privileged family background allowed Ibn Khaldun to be educated by leading North African scholars and imams. His main teacher was Al-Abili, a proponent of both the rational sciences and the occult arts. In addition to classical Islamic texts, his early education included Arab linguistics, law and jurisprudence, mathematics, poetry, logic and philosophy. He memorised the Qur’an by heart and was well versed in the works of the world’s leading philosophers of his time including Averroes, Avicenna, Razi and Tusi. Similarly to Confucius, Ibn Khaldun lost his parents when he was relatively young (aged 17).
For much of his life Ibn Khaldun was a skilful politician who managed to survive, and navigate, the tides of the complex, chronically unstable and unpredictable world of medieval North Africa and the Middle East. He came to age in the midst of protracted inter-dynastic conflicts in the region where loyalty to a current ruler regularly indicated a high probability of being beheaded by his successor. Ibn Khaldun started as an official at the court of Ibn Tafrakin with responsibility for calligraphic writing, marking and ratification of royal correspondence. Although this position gave him direct access to state secrets, he considered it to be beneath his talents. To further his political career he moved to the city of Fez where he worked at the court of Abu ‘Inan. He was soon accused of treachery and imprisoned for nearly two years, to be released upon the king’s death. The new king, Abu Salim, appointed Ibn Khaldun to several senior posts, but once the ruler was murdered Ibn Khaldun had to flee the city. Following this he spent several years as a high official at the court of Ibn al-Khatib in Grenada, but after a serious quarrel had to leave the city. For
