latter to swidden cultivation. As I have shown, this emphasis fits in with national expectations of “tribe” and global ideas about indigenous people, but does not necessarily do justice to Garo villagers’ much more complex and engaged understandings of the environment in which they live.
Erik de Maaker (PhD, Leiden) is a researcher and lecturer at the Institute of Cultural Anthropology and Development Sociology of Leiden University in the Netherlands. He studied anthropology in Amsterdam and Leiden and wrote a PhD dissertation that takes mortuary rituals as a starting point for an analysis of social and economic transformation in upland Northeast India. His current research focuses on the redefinition of land as a resource, as well as its changing importance in processes of “place” making in the extended eastern Himalayas. Erik has published several articles in academic journals and edited volumes, and is preparing a monograph on economic and religious transformations of society in upland Northeast India. For more details regarding his research and publications, see https://leidenuniv.academia.edu/ErikdeMaaker.
Notes
1. The film was produced by Survival International, and can be viewed on their website at http://www.survivalinternational.org/films/mine (accessed 11 December 2014).
2. In January 2014, Garo Hills had approximately sixteen militant groups. Although no one could give exact numbers, the general impression was that some of these were very small, almost non-existent. Others supposedly counted several dozen, if not several hundred, men and women. Some of the better-known “underground” groups are the Garo National Liberation Army (GNLA), the A’chik National Liberation Army (ANLA), the Garo Liberation Tigers (GLT), and the A’chik (Garo) Tiger Force (ATF). In 2004 the A’chik National Volunteers Council (ANVC) signed a ceasefire agreement, and is transforming itself into a regular political group. Sections of it have contested local elections as the ANVC-D (Democratic).
3. Coal mining was an important economic activity until early 2014, when the National Green Tribunal (a national Indian Legislative Council) imposed a ban on small-scale unlicensed mining. The ban has been largely successful, and coal mining in the state has mostly come to a halt.
4. Garo social models emphasize kin ties, but it is important to note that kinship is always defined in a broad sense, and thus not limited to relationships defined by “blood.” Rather, kinship provides an encompassing social “grid” that allows people to frame all the relationships that they trace among each other. For instance, Garo traditionally value cross-cousin marriages. Given that kinship is classificatory, who exactly qualifies as cross-cousins is open to interpretation.
5. Garo trace matrilineal descent, and village headmanship is carried over from mother to daughter. The headman title thus rests with the husbands of these successive women. This male entitlement through marriage explains why marriage alliances, that are carried over from various generations, tend to be a central cultural concern (de Maaker 2012).
6. This explains why the boulder principle has also been appropriated to substantiate ethno-nationalist claims. In 1997 in Tura, the largest town of the Garo Hills, a kusi-boulder was erected by its “citizens” (according to the plaquette placed on it). Its planting, in the central area of Ringre, emphasizes that Tura is above all a “Garo” town. Yet historically, Tura has had a largely non-Garo population, created as it was by the former colonial administration, who brought in a lot of Bengali and Assamese, and lately their numbers have been on the rise. As a reaction to this, it seems, Garo indigenous activists want to claim the city as exclusively Garo.
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