Parliament on 28 March 1661 repealing most Acts since 1633. (Recissory means ‘revoking'.) It thus abolished all public legislation, religious and secular, introduced by the Covenanting regime (1638–50), thereby restoring royal authority and the institutional structure of the early 17th century. See also COVENANTING REVOLUTION; RESTORATION, SCOTLAND.ADAMS, GERRY
(b. 6 Oct. 1948 at Belfast, Northern Ireland). Reputedly a leading member of the PROVISIONAL IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY (PIRA) in NORTHERN IRELAND in the early 1970s, Adams was interned (imprisoned without trial) in 1972, 1973–6, and imprisoned in 1978. He helped to organize the 1981 HUNGER STRIKES which encouraged PROVISIONAL SINN FÉIN (PSF) to exploit electoral politics alongside violent activity. In 1982 Adams was elected for PSF to the new ASSEMBLY (abstained). From 1983 to 2018 he was president of PSF.
From 1988 Adams engaged with John HUME in secret discussions about achieving Irish nationalist ambitions (principally a united Ireland). Their joint statement (24 April 1993) and report to the Irish taoiseach (premier) encouraged a PEACE PROCESS. From Sept. 1997, following a second PIRA ceasefire, Adams participated in the multi‐party talks that culminated in the BELFAST AGREEMENT (1998). He was a member of another Assembly (1998–2010), and PSF participated in multi‐party EXECUTIVES (1999–2002, 2007–17). Adams was also an abstentionist member of the UK Parliament 1983–92, 1997–2011. From 2011 to 2020 he sat in the Dáil of the Republic of Ireland. See also TROUBLES; MC GUINNESS, MARTIN.
ADDINGTON, HENRY
(b. 30 May 1757 at London, England; d. 15 Feb. 1844 at Richmond, Surrey, England, aged 86). A doctor’s son and childhood friend of William PITT the Younger, Addington became an MP in 1784 and served as speaker of the House of Commons from 1789. An opponent of CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION, he was chosen by King GEORGE III to replace Pitt as PRIME MINISTER (first lord of the Treasury) in March 1801, during the NAPOLEONIC WARS. Addington’s ministry negotiated the Peace of AMIENS with France (March 1802) but proved inadequate when war resumed (May 1803). The ministry collapsed in April 1804. Pitt resumed office.
Addington was created Viscount Sidmouth in 1805. He held posts in the ministries of Pitt (1805) and Lord GRENVILLE (1806–7), and was home secretary 1812–21 (under Lord LIVERPOOL), a period of social unrest. Sidmouth took harsh action against LUDDITES and introduced the repressive SIX ACTS (1819).
ADDLED PARLIAMENTIn England, the PARLIAMENT convened in 1614 by King JAMES VI/I who sought taxes to pay off debts. It met on 5 April and was dissolved on 7 June. As in the 1610 Parliament, opposition to IMPOSITIONS prevented agreement. It was nicknamed ‘Addled’ because, like an addled egg that produces no chicken, it failed to pass any Bills.ADEN AND ADEN PROTECTORATE
Former British territories in S Arabia. In 1839 the EAST INDIA COMPANY annexed the town of Aden, near the Red Sea; islands and other lands were later included. A coaling station for ships, Aden became especially important after the opening of the SUEZ CANAL (1869).
After 1839, informal agreements were made with rulers in Aden’s eastern hinterland, and from 1886 to 1954 Great Britain made formal treaties, creating the so‐called Aden Protectorate. Administration of the territories was transferred from India to London in 1917. Aden itself became a CROWN COLONY in 1937.
In 1959 some rulers in the protectorate formed the ‘Federation of Arab Emirates of the South’ (renamed Federation of South Arabia in 1962). Aden, under British sovereignty, joined the Federation in 1963; protected territories outside the Federation became the Protectorate of South Arabia. But from 1965 civil war spread into the FSA from North Yemen, and 129 British troops were killed (1965–7). Britain withdrew in Nov. 1967, whereupon the FSA and protectorate became the People’s Republic of South Yemen. See also BRITISH SOMALILAND.
ADOMNÁN(b. 627 or 628 in N Ireland; d. 23 Sept. 704 on Iona, Scottish Dál Riata, aged 76). In 679 Adomnán became ninth abbot of IONA (off Mull, W of Scotland, in the kingdom of DÁL RIATA), chosen probably for both learning and kinship with its founder Colum Cille (or COLUMBA). After his friend Aldfrith became king of NORTHUMBRIA, Adomnán rescued Irish captives from Northumbria (687). According to BEDE, Adomnán accepted the Roman timing of Easter from Northumbria and persuaded many Irish churches to adopt it, but not his own Ionan monasteries. In 697 Adomnán supported the adoption in Ireland of the ‘Law of Innocents’, which protected women, children and clergy in warfare. Adomnán wrote a Life of Columba and was venerated as a saint. See also EASTER CONTROVERSY.ADRIAN IV(b. c.1100 at Abbot's Langley, Hertfordshire, England; d. 1 Sept. 1159 at Anagni, Italy, aged about 59). Nicholas Breakspear, an abbot in France, was created a cardinal in 1149. After serving as papal legate in Scandinavia (1152–4), he was elected Pope (Dec. 1154) – the only Englishman to hold the office. He allegedly issued the bull LAUDABILITER , sanctioning involvement in Ireland by HENRY II.ADULLAMITESNickname of a WHIG faction in the UK Parliament which resisted any significant widening of the electorate, 1866–7, viewing it as a transfer of power to the ignorant. John BRIGHT likened their leader, Robert LOWE, to King David calling the discontented into the cave of Adullam (a reference to the Bible, 1 Samuel 22: 1–2). The Adullamites’ opposition to PARLIAMENTARY REFORM caused the fall of Lord John RUSSELL’s Liberal government in 1866.ADVENTURERS, ACT FORAct of the English Parliament, passed 19 March 1642, to pay for suppression of Irish rebels (see IRISH WARS, 1641–52). It offered financial investors (‘Adventurers') land which would be confiscated from rebels (total 2.5 million acres; 1 million ha). One‐third of the target £1 million was raised. Land was allocated from 1654 (see CROMWELLIAN LAND SETTLEMENT).ADVERTISING
Information was spread in TOWNS, possibly by the 12th century, by criers (or bellmen), and shops advertised their presence with signs (e.g., striped pole for a barber). Shop fascias, with lettering, spread from the late 18th century.
Printing extended possibilities. From the mid 17th century NEWSPAPERS carried advertisements, and handbills were produced (e.g., advertising coffee). By the 18th century the term ‘advertisement’ (meaning ‘notification’) was restricted to business announcements. The first ‘advertising agent’, William Taylor, is recorded in 1786 in Maidstone (SE England), and an agency, Reynell & Son, was founded in LONDON in 1812.
In the 19th century the development of mass‐produced branded goods for large markets, resulting partly from the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, required efficient, large‐scale advertising. Manufacturers of patent medicines notably invested heavily (e.g., on posters, newspaper advertisements). From the later 19th century advertisements were painted on buildings, and hoardings (billboards) were used. Agencies became more numerous, producing copy and artwork, and (from 1920s) organizing ‘campaigns’.
Film advertising began in 1897 (with an advert for custard powder), but TELEVISION and RADIO advertising were resisted in the UK until 1955 and 1973 respectively, although commercial radio stations broadcast advertisements from Continental Europe from the 1920s. In the Republic of Ireland, advertising began on radio in 1989, on television in 1998. The Internet became an important medium from the 1990s.
Industry self‐regulation schemes for handling complaints were introduced in the UK in 1962 and in the Republic of Ireland in 1981. Several British agencies were successful internationally from the later 20th century, notably WPP, developed by Sir Martin Sorrell, which in 2000 became the world’s largest advertising company.
ADVOWSON
The right to present a clergyman to a Church benefice (living). It arose from the foundation of local churches by lords (and creation of the PARISH SYSTEM) – in England in the 10th–12th centuries, later elsewhere. Advowsons were often associated with MANORS. As MONASTICISM expanded from the late 11th century, many advowsons were granted to religious houses. They often returned
