when the UK’s (Conservative) government legislated for a referendum on membership, to negate electoral pressure from the anti‐EU UNITED KINGDOM INDEPENDENCE PARTY and anti‐EU sentiment within the Conservative Party by settling the issue. Prime Minister David CAMERON expected to win endorsement of membership.
The referendum (23 June 2016) produced a majority for ‘leave’ (52% to 48%), causing Cameron to resign. He was succeeded by Theresa MAY, previously a ‘remainer’. Notice of departure, authorized by Parliament, was served on the EU on 29 March 2017, to become effective two years later.
In June 2017 May held a general election to assist Brexit: she expected to strengthen her authority by increasing her House of Commons majority. The reverse happened. The majority was lost and May became reliant on support from DEMOCRATIC UNIONIST PARTY (DUP) MPs from NORTHERN IRELAND. Her withdrawal strategy (‘Chequers Plan’, July 2018) prompted two Cabinet ministers to resign (including Boris JOHNSON), and her withdrawal agreement with the EU was rejected three times by the Commons (Jan.–March 2019). It was opposed by many Conservatives for alleged excessive concessions, by the LABOUR PARTY Opposition mainly for party advantage, and by other parties (e.g., LIBERAL DEMOCRATS, SCOTTISH NATIONAL PARTY) because they opposed Brexit. DUP MPs and many Conservatives particularly resisted an ‘Irish backstop’, which might leave Northern Ireland indefinitely subject to EU regulations (to prevent a ‘hard border’ in Ireland). Brexit was eventually postponed to 31 Oct. Conservatives reacted to the impasse by pressurizing May into resignation.
May was replaced by ‘Brexiteer’ Boris Johnson (July). His willingness to countenance a ‘no deal’ departure was stymied by opponents in Parliament, who legislated (Sept.) for the prime minister to request a three‐month extension if Parliament had not accepted a deal or a no‐deal departure by 19 Oct. Although Johnson obtained a revised withdrawal agreement (17 Oct.), continuing opposition resulted in postponement of the UK’s departure. Conservative victory in a general election (12 Dec. 2019) enabled the UK to leave the EU on 31 Jan. 2020. See also ROYAL PREROGATIVE; EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY/EUROPEAN UNION, IMPACT ON BRITISH POLITICS.
BRIAN BÓRUMA (BRIAN BORU)
(b. c.941 at Béal Boru, Munster, S Ireland; d. 23 April 1014, Clontarf, Leinster, E Ireland, aged about 73). Brian succeeded as high‐king of the Dál Cais in MUNSTER in 976 and by 982 was Munster's high‐king. He then intermittently fought MÁEL SECHNAILL MAC DOMNAILL, high‐king of the Southern UÍ NÉILL (E Ireland) and of Ireland. By 996 Brian was dominant in S Ireland.
In 997 Brian pressurized Máel Sechnaill into sharing the high‐kingship (S Ireland to Brian), and in 1002 obtained Máel Sechnaill's submission, ending Uí Néill monopoly of the high‐kingship. Brian then campaigned in N Ireland, securing widespread recognition as high‐king by 1011. In 1012 Leinstermen and their Scandinavian allies began to rebel. Brian defeated them at CLONTARF in 1014, but was then killed. In the late 11th century his descendants adopted his name as their surname; see O'BRIEN FAMILY.
BRIDEI SON OF BELI(fl. from 671; d. 692, probably in N Britain). From 671 Bridei ruled the northern Pictish kingdom of FORTRIU (in modern NE Scotland), and is the first to be named as its king (in Irish sources). But he was an outsider; his family was southern Pictish (probably from Fife), his father was a king in Brittonic STRATHCLYDE, and his mother was a daughter of King EDWIN of Northumbria. Through her, he was a cousin of the dominant Northumbrian king EGFRITH, who controlled southern Pictland and probably installed Bridei as a puppet in northern Pictland. But Mercians defeated Egfrith in 679, and thereafter Bridei exerted his own power, devastating the ORKNEY ISLANDS (681) and capturing strongholds in southern Pictland. Egfrith reacted by leading an army north in 685, but was defeated and killed probably near (modern) Forfar (see DÚN NECHTAIN, BATTLE OF). That ended Northumbrian power north of the R. Forth, and enabled Bridei to dominate both northern and southern Pictland. See also PICTS; KINGSHIP, NORTH BRITAIN.BRIDEI SON OF DER‐ILEI(fl. from 696; d. 707, probably in N Britain). From 696 Bridei ruled FORTRIU and the other Pictish areas, thus creating a unified Pictish realm stretching S to the FORTH–CLYDE ISTHMUS. His right to the kingship came from his Pictish mother Der‐Ilei; his father was from Scottish (i.e., Irish) Argyll, which helped him have good relations with DÁL RIATA. Moreover, after 698, when he defeated a Northumbrian effort to reverse the takeover of southern Pictland, he also established good relations with Aldfrith, king of NORTHUMBRIA. The most striking aspect of his reign, however, is his relationship with IONA (where Aldfrith had been a monk). Working with Abbot ADOMNÁN (biographer of Columba), and with Aldfrith’s encouragement, he brought previously independent religious settlements scattered across Pictland into a much more episcopal structure under Ionan primacy. See also PICTS.BRIDEI SON OF MAILCON(fl. from c.556; d. 586, probably in N Britain). A king of PICTS from c.556, Bridei’s power base appears to have been the former Verturiones tribe (see FORTRIU), whose heartland was in the coastal region from the inner Moray Firth to the R. Don (in NE of modern Scotland); but his sway probably stretched across the central and northern Highlands, and also the ORKNEY ISLANDS (which suggests he had naval resources). Early in his reign (c.558) he defeated a force of SCOTS (Irish) from (Scottish) DÁL RIATA. Later, he was visited by the Irish monk COLUMBA (from IONA monastery, founded 563), at a stronghold in or near either (modern) Inverness or Dunkeld. After initial hostility, Bridei eventually treated Columba with honour, but seems not to have espoused Christianity. See also KINGSHIP, NORTH BRITAIN.BRIDGEWATER, 3RD DUKE OF(b. 21 May 1736, probably at Westminster, Middlesex, England; d. 8 March 1803 at Westminster, aged 66). Francis Egerton inherited his dukedom in 1748. From 1755, after seeing the Languedoc Canal in France and studying engineering, he planned a canal to exploit his coalmines at Worsley (Lancashire). He obtained Acts of Parliament in 1759, 1760 and 1762. Under the second he built a canal to MANCHESTER (engineered by James Brindley), the first ‘arterial canal’ to be built in England for many centuries. Successfully operating by the early 1760s, this encouraged his further investment in canal‐building. See also CANALS, ENGLAND.BRIGANTESsee CARTIMANDUA; VENUTIUSBRIGHT, JOHN(b.16 Nov. 1811 at Rochdale, Lancashire, England; d. 27 March 1889 at Rochdale, aged 77). Bright, a Quaker cotton mill‐owner, was chief orator of the ANTI‐CORN LAW LEAGUE (1839–46). A Radical MP from 1843, he opposed the CRIMEAN WAR (1854–6); later he campaigned for PARLIAMENTARY REFORM, before holding office under W.E. GLADSTONE (president of the Board of Trade 1868–70, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster 1873–4, 1880–2).BRIGIT(fl. in possibly early 6th century in Ireland). By the mid 7th century Brigit was claimed as the founder of a church and monastery at KILDARE (E Ireland). Her historical existence is doubtful; her cult may have started as the Christianization of devotion to a pagan goddess of the same name. Brigit nevertheless became the most popular saint in Ireland after PATRICK. See also CONVERSION OF IRELAND.BRISTOL
A city, port and unitary authority in SW England, at the confluence of the Rivers Avon and Frome.
A town was founded by the 10th century. Its name means ‘Place by the bridge’. Bristol has been important for trade and communications with Ireland. In the 14th–16th centuries it was also a substantial centre of the CLOTH INDUSTRY. Divided between Gloucestershire and Somerset, Bristol was the first English town to receive county status (1373). England’s exploration of N America started from Bristol in 1497 (see CABOT, JOHN). It was a bishop’s see from 1542 (except for 1836–96; joined with Gloucester).
Bristol expanded enormously from the late 17th century with the development of trade with the WEST INDIES, NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES and WEST AFRICA (notably the SLAVE TRADE). During the 18th century it superseded NORWICH as the largest and wealthiest city after London. The first METHODIST chapel opened there in 1739. Although Bristol was disadvantaged by the rise of LIVERPOOL and abolition of the slave trade (1807), it continued to process sugar and tobacco, and manufacture chocolate. It was assisted from 1841 by a RAILWAY to London.
Foreign trade diminished after WORLD WAR II (1939–45), but Bristol remained an important industrial and financial centre. It gained two universities
