if they know very little about the subject matter, especially if they have been dealing with it on a daily basis.
Second, if educators helped learners recognize the many places and ways they have gone about learning in adulthood, more adults might see themselves as active learners. As a result, they might be less cautious about learning new things and even be more willing to enter formal programs of learning. One of our favorite stories is about a duck carver who was interviewed as part of a study on self-directed learning (Berger, 1990). This man, who considered himself both a nonreader and “definitely not a very good student,” taught himself how to carve ducks. He started this process by carving some ducks by himself and then taking them to duck carving shows, where he could talk with other artists about his initial attempts. In addition, he read every book he could get his hands on related to duck carving (and remember, he thought of himself as a nonreader). He now raises ducks so he can have live models, in itself another learning project. As a result of the interview process, this man saw himself as much more of a learner than he had before. Our hope is that as more individuals view themselves as active and competent learners, at least in some areas, they might be better able to address the many life challenges that come in adulthood, through both formal and informal learning modes.
In exploring the spectrum of learning opportunities in adulthood, we first discuss each of the primary arenas in which adult learning occurs: those sponsored by formal institutions, nonformal community-based learning activities, and learning that is more informal or self-directed in nature. We then explore online learning as a fourth site for learning, one that overlays formal, nonformal, and informal modes of learning. Although there are other terms in use, we have chosen to use the term online learning because it is the most common term used to refer to learning through the use of computers anchored to communication networks. A second section of the chapter presents two related concepts—organizational learning and the learning organization. Finally, we end the chapter with a discussion of lifelong learning and the learning society.
Where Learning Occurs
In this section we first present a framework for three types of settings in which learning occurs for adults: formal institutional settings, nonformal settings, and informal contexts. This framework is an adaptation of one proposed by Coombs (1985, 1989; Coombs, Prosser, & Ahmed, 1973), in which he classified lifelong learning according to these three broad categories. The biggest difference between their conceptualization and our framework is that we have added the concepts of self-directed learning (which is synonymous with Coombs's definition of informal learning) and indigenous forms of learning. Although we are aware of the problems of trying to divide the landscape of learning opportunities into three separate categories, we are assuming that all three categories are of equal importance in the adult learning enterprise. There will always be overlaps among the three, something that educators of adults can capitalize on when designing educational activities. Online learning is a fourth site of learning, one that spans formal, nonformal, and informal learning.
Formal and Nonformal Settings
For most people, learning in adulthood brings to mind classroom settings and this is indeed what Coombs (1985) and Coombs et al. (1973) had in mind with their classification of formal education. Formal education is highly institutionalized, bureaucratic, curriculum driven, and formally recognized with grades, diplomas, or certificates. It is “the institutional ladder that goes from preschool to graduate studies” (Schugurensky, 2000, para. 2) and thus can include “adult basic education programs that follow the prescribed curriculum and employ certified teachers” (Schugurensky, 2000, para. 3).
Historically, formal education, whether it be in public schools or postsecondary institutions, has had as its primary mission to serve youth. In more recent years the populations of some of these institutions—such as many community colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and colleges and universities—have changed so dramatically that they are now reaching more adult learners than traditional-age students. In fact, nearly half of the students in postsecondary institutions are over the age of 25 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019a). For formal settings, we envision adults sitting in a classroom, with an instructor, learning in a variety of ways, from formal lectures to small-group interactions. When we ask participants what they remember as positive about learning in formal settings, they often cite well-organized, knowledgeable, and caring instructors; participatory instructional methods and well-crafted lectures; relevant and useful materials; and respect for them as adults and learners. And, conversely, when we ask participants to recall some of their worst experiences, they talk about instructors who have no sense of them as people or learners, poorly delivered content whatever the method used, and poorly organized and irrelevant materials.
The term nonformal education has been used most often to describe organized learning opportunities outside the formal educational system. These offerings tend to be short term, voluntary, and have few if any prerequisites. However, they typically have a curriculum and often a facilitator. Nonformal educational opportunities are usually local and community-based, such as those programs offered by museums, libraries, hospitals, service clubs, and religious and civic organizations; mass media is also classified as a nonformal delivery system. Some insights into these nonformal settings are revealed in Taylor's studies of educators working in the nonformal settings of state and local parks (Taylor & Caldarelli, 2004); home improvement stores (Taylor, 2005b); and the cultural institutions of aquariums, libraries, museums, parks, and zoos (Taylor & Parrish, 2010). Instructors in these settings emphasize the informality, compressed time, and hands-on, interactive nature of the learning in which the needs and interests of the participants are paramount in the encounter. Diamond, Horn, and Uttal (2016) have even offered a “practical evaluation guide” for this type of setting including museums, science centers, zoos, aquariums, planetariums, and nature centers.
Although nonformal adult education is outside the formal schooling or education system, three subtypes can be discerned, all of which are “reactions to the limitations or failures of formal education” (Brennan, 1997, p. 187). The first subtype proposed by Brennan (1997) is nonformal education as a complement to the formal system. Targeted are those who have dropped out of the formal system, or who, for whatever reason, failed to obtain basic skills such as literacy while in the system. Adult literacy classes offered by the local public library or community college would be an example of this type of nonformal education.
A second type of nonformal education Brennan terms alternative to the formal system. This includes traditional and indigenous education, which we discuss in more detail in the following section. Nonformal education can also be seen as a supplement to formal education. Supplemental nonformal education (NFE) he sees as related to a response to national and global imperatives: “This type of NFE is required as a quick reaction to educational, social and economic needs because formal education is too slow in its response (if it does in fact decide to respond) to these needs” (p. 187). An example might be an ad hoc session for health care professionals on dealing with a sudden outbreak of measles. Another example of nonformal education as supplemental might be National Issues Forums sponsored by the Kettering Foundation. These forums are held in local communities and focus on public policy issues such as the health care crisis, immigration, terrorism, the opioid epidemic and so on (see www.nifi.org).
Nonformal education is also associated with international development programs designed to improve the living conditions of people in developing countries through community projects and training programs. These programs are typically sponsored by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and private voluntary agencies. Nonformal educational programs in developing countries (as well as some nonformal programs in the United States) are “expressly concerned with social inequities and often seek to raise the consciousness of participants toward social action” (Merriam & Brockett, 2007, p. 170).
Despite efforts to distinguish between formal and nonformal education, some adult learning opportunities that could be placed in this nonformal category often more closely resemble programs
