R. P., Johnson, E., & Zárate‐Sández, G. (2011). Getting a grip on the slippery construct of awareness: Toward a finer‐grained methodological perspective. In C. Sanz & R. P. Leow (Eds.), Implicit and explicit conditions, processes and knowledge in SLA and bilingualism (pp. 61–72). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.14 Leow, R. P., & Zamora, C. (2017). Intentional and incidental learning. In S. Loewen & M. Sato (Eds.), Routledge handbook of instructed second language acquisition (pp. 33–49). New York, NY: Routledge.
15 Leung, J. H. C., & Williams, J. N. (2011). The implicit learning of mappings between forms and contextually derived meanings. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 33, 33–55.
16 Medina, A. (2016). The variable effects of level of awareness and CALL versus non‐CALL textual modification on adult L2 readers’ input comprehension and learning. In R. P. Leow, L. Cerezo, & M. Baralt (Eds.), A psycholinguistic approach to technology and L2 learning (pp. 109–30). Berlin, Germany: Mouton de Gruyter.
17 Paciorek, A., & Williams, J. (2015). Implicit learning of semantic preferences of verbs. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 37, 359–82.
18 Rebuschat, P., Hamrick, P., Sachs, R., Riestenberg, K., & Ziegler, N. (2015). Triangulating measures of awareness: A contribution to the debate on learning without awareness. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 37, 299–334.
19 Robinson, P. (1995a). Attention, memory, and the “noticing” hypothesis. Language Learning, 45, 283–331.
20 Robinson, P. (1995b). Aptitude, awareness, and the fundamental similarity of implicit and explicit second language learning. In R. W. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning (Technical Report #9, pp. 303–57). Honolulu: University of Hawai'i.
21 Rogers, J., Résvész, A., & Rebuschat, P. (2016). Implicit and explicit knowledge of inflectional morphology. Applied Psycholinguistics, 37, 781–812.
22 Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11, 129–58.
23 Schmidt, R. (1993). Awareness and second language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13, 206–26.
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Suggested Readings
1 Leow, R. P., Grey, S., Marijuan, S., & Moorman, C. (2014). Concurrent data elicitation procedures, processes, and the early stages of L2 learning: A critical overview. Second Language Research, 30(2), 111–27.
2 Rebuschat, P. (Ed.). (2015). Implicit and explicit learning of languages. Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins.
Attitudes and Motivation in Bilingual Education
DAVID LASAGABASTER
Introduction
Languages play a paramount role in any society in general and in education in particular. A student enrolled in a bilingual school in which different languages are in contact soon realizes that society, family, peers, and school all place importance on these languages. The student's own assessment and others' influence, together with the context, the information, and the knowledge they acquire will shape their attitudes toward these languages and their motivation for learning them.
Research into attitudes and motivation flourished in the 1950s and, since then, all the major theories and models of second language acquisition have underscored their importance. It has become clear that attitudes affect motivation, and the interrelationship between these two concepts has been widely acknowledged in literature on the subject.
Attitudes
The popularity of the concept of attitude is confirmed by its use in many diverse fields of research: education, sociology, sociolinguistics, social psychology, and political science, to name but a few. Although from an etymological point of view attitude was originally a technical term in art for the posture of a figure in a statue or painting, its current psychological meaning has imposed over the physical one. Among the many available definitions, Ajzen's (1988, p. 4) is probably the most widely quoted one due to its brevity and clarity: “a disposition to respond favourably or unfavourably to an object, person, institution or event.”
Attitudes are not innate but rather acquired and can be learned, and through learning they change and evolve. Attitudes are mainly social and we acquire them through direct or indirect social interaction, which is why the social context plays such a significant role in their analysis. Attitudes are determined by such influential factors as the family, work, religion, mass media, friends, or education, to the extent that individuals tend to adjust their attitudes so that they match those of their social group. So the origins of our attitudes and changes in them can be affected by different agents, and among these institutions are powerful influences. Every individual develops in a social context where institutions are very present, and nowadays most people spend a large part of their lives in education‐related institutions.
Motivation
Motivation is a complex psychological construct that acts as a direct determinant of second language (L2) achievement, which is why much attention has been paid to this individual variable in second language acquisition literature. Gardner (1985, p. 10) defines motivation as “the extent to which the individual works or strives to learn the language because of a desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced in this activity.”
The widespread interest in motivation is reflected in the hundreds of books and articles published on the topic over the past decade (Dörnyei, Henry, & Muir, 2016). Although the factors that may account for individual differences in L2 learning are as manifold as there are people, motivation is crucial, especially in classroom language learning. Studies carried out in many different contexts have demonstrated that there is a clear correlation between motivation and language achievement.
For decades motivation was regarded as a relatively stable learner trait, but from the 1990s onward research on motivation has undergone a shift toward a more dynamic construct. Although language learners are usually highly motivated when they set out to learn a foreign language, the challenge lies in maintaining that motivation. Yet the dynamic character and temporal variation inherent to students' motivation have been somewhat neglected in studies so far. The mastery of an L2 is a long process which usually takes several years and in which students' motivation fluctuates (Dörnyei, MacIntyre, & Henry, 2015). Research is also currently more grounded in the context where the learning takes place and Ushioda (2009, p. 216) in fact suggests that “we need to understand second language learners as people, and as people who are necessarily located in particular cultural and historical contexts.”
Different Motivational Models
The different models of second language acquisition have traditionally highlighted the importance of attitudes and motivation. Due to space constraints, reference will be made to only two bilingual education‐friendly models: Gardner's (1985) socioeducational
