of transporting CO2 from a capture plant to a storage site. Sources and sinks of CO2 do not in general match well (IPCC-CCS 2005), and it will be necessary to have a significant amount of CO2 transported in pipelines. Assuming large-scale CCS with a larger number of capture plants, it is difficult to avoid transport of CO2 through densely populated areas. A major leakage from a pipeline is potentially dangerous for humans. Therefore, it is of great importance to understand the human reaction to various extents of CO2 exposure and, with this knowledge, generate the necessary safety measures. Issues could also arise from the transnational transport of CO2 because of legal aspects (Leung et al. 2014).
Leakage of CO2 from an underground storage site is also of concern. A major leakage from a storage site may irreversibly reduce the credibility of CCS. It is important and also difficult to inform society about the mechanisms of CO2 storage and CO2 flow underground and to deal with the risk of leakages, not least, mentally.
The whole process of CO2 capture, transport, and storage combines not only existing and well-understood technologies in a new context but also new methods, unknown operating regimes, and quantities. This combination holds a lot of risk for both the separate process steps and the total technology. As for the capture part, these concerns are connected to the maturity of the novel technologies themselves and also with regard to the large scales of CO2, which need to be captured and stored. Moreover, the assessment of these risks in a cost-efficient and systematic manner is very important. When it comes to transportation, the limited operating experience with CO2 is a problem, as the standards for existing pipeline transportation cannot easily be transferred one-to-one. The aspect regarding generally consistent guidelines can also be applied to the storage locations. Moreover, monitoring and safety issues regarding the sites, wells, and the injection itself can also be seen as critical points (DNV 2010).
1.11 History of CCS
The technology for separating gases using chemical absorption was developed in the 1940s (Siddique 1990) and thereafter developed for separating CO2 from gas mixtures. The purpose of separating CO2 from other gases was, among other things, the carbonation of drinks. The technology was developed for separating CO2 and other acid gases from natural gas (Kohl and Nielsen 1997). One of the first to suggest CCS was Marchetti (1977). He made reference to several methods for CO2 capture from power plants and blast furnaces, and he proposed storing the CO2 in the ocean. Marchetti worked for the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in Austria, where CCS was an issue being worked on during the 1970s. In 1980, Anthony Albanese and Meyer Steinberg published a paper with a very detailed discussion on capture technologies and energy use as well as storage (Albanese and Steinberg 1980). During the 1980s, Steinberg published a number of reports and papers dealing with CCS, and this is summarised in Steinberg (1992). Meyer Steinberg is the most obvious father of CCS, if one can use such a term, because of his contribution during the 1980s. Steinberg has published a large number of papers related to CCS and is also the co-author of a text book (Halmann and Steinberg 1999).
The Norwegians, Erik Lindeberg and Torleif Holt, did a lot of work on CCS in the late 1980s and were the initiators of CCS in Norway. A significant contribution was made by Wim Turkenburg, Kornelius Blok, and Chris Hendriks in the Netherlands, who, among other things, organised the First International Conference on Carbon Dioxide Removal (ICCDR) in Amsterdam in March 1992. ICCDR and the Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Options Conference were merged in 1997 to form the Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies (GHGT) conference series, which is now established as the main conference within CCS.
During the 1980s, work related to CCS took place at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) and the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) (Steinberg 1992). There was also activity related to CO2 capture at the Argonne National Laboratory from the early 1980s (Abraham et al. 1982).
It was not until close to 1990 that the volume of research effort in this field was increased to a significant level. The Japanese, and in particular, the RITE (Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the Earth), were already doing extensive work in the early 1990s. The main focus of research in Japan was on CO2 fixation and utilisation.
In 1991, the IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEA GHG) was established. IEA GHG is an Implementing Agreement of the International Energy Agency. In January 2013, the IEA GHG consisted of 19 member countries, the European Commission, OPEC, and 21 multinational industrial sponsors. The IEA GHG is playing a very important role as a coordinator for R&D activities within CCS. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has been important for the development of the interest in CCS and in justifying the need for CCS, by pointing to the necessity both to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to emphasise CCS as a mitigation option.
It is important to note that many CO2 capture plants were built and operated with removal of CO2 from natural gas and synthesis gas during the 1970s and 1980s. CO2 was also captured from the flue gas in a number of plants that were built in this time period in order to provide CO2 for EOR (refer to Section 2.1.2) as well as for other industrialised use (Pauley 1983; Barchas and Davis 1992; Sander and Mariz 1992; Suda et al. 1992). One can say that the technology for the capture of CO2 from gas streams was already available at the time the idea of CCS emerged.
Notes
1 1 Absorption of electromagnetic radiation is the process by which the energy of a photon is taken up by an atom. The photon is destroyed in the process. The term ‘absorption’ is also used within chemical engineering as uptake of a gas in a liquid or solid material, as described in Section 9.1. The term is also used in a number of other areas.
2 2 Aerosol refers here to liquid droplets or solid particles in the atmosphere, such as sulfate aerosols from fossil fuel combustion or particles from volcano eruptions.
3 3 Peak oil is the point in time at which the maximum global oil production rate is reached, after which the rate of production starts to decline. Marion King Hubbert (1903–1989) first used the theory in 1956 to predict that US oil production would peak between 1965 and 1970. His model, the Hubbert peak theory, has since been used by some to predict the peak oil production globally.
4 4 Sequestration is mainly used in North America. The term has different meanings in English, French, and Spanish and is also for many people a difficult word to relate to. Most people within the scientific community, including IPCC, have adopted ‘capture and storage’ IPCC-CCS (2005 ). IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage. Cambridge, United Kingdom, and New York, NY, USA, Cambridge University Press.
5 5 Partial pressure relates to a specific gas in a gas mixture and the pressure that the gas would have if it alone occupied the volume (assuming ideal gas). According to Dalton's law, the sum of the partial pressure for the all the gases in a gas mixture equals the total pressure. Partial pressure equals the molar (or volumetric) fraction multiplied by the total pressure.
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