know, therefore, that the ability of metals to be burnt is [due to] the Sulphur, and not to the Quicksilver by itself. Furthermore, we also know that in anything that contains very unctuous moisture mixed with earthiness, the moisture is of three kinds. One of these is extremely airy and fiery, adhering to the surface, as a consequence of the [upward] motion of those elements [Fire and Air], so that they always rise to the surface of things in which they are mixed and combined. The second, close beneath this, contains more wateriness floating about among the parts of the thing. The third has its moisture firmly rooted and immersed in the parts and bounded in the combination; and therefore this is the only one that is not easily separated from the combination, unless the thing is totally destroyed. And therefore this must be the nature of Sulphur. (p. 197-198)
Here we can see that Albertus Magnus has divided the extrinsic moisture into two types while retaining the unitary character of the third, intrinsic humidity. His goal in making this new bifurcation probably lay in the desire to have both a flammable and a non-flammable type of unfixed humidity. Thus, the first extrinsic moisture is fiery and airy, hence combustible, while the second is not, being composed of “wateriness” (Newman, 2014). Whatever the intention of Albertus was, this point about distinguishing ‘fiery’ element from others is of profound implication. In later centuries, this formed the basis of considering energy as a form, discrete from mass, thereby creating opacity in maintaining natural energy sources.
The original form of the mass energy transformation theory of Avicenna is depicted in Figure 2.4. This figure shows how any matter will have tangible and intangible components, the intangible component being the driver for so-called chemical reactions. For instance, the intangible component will include energy source as well as the presence of trace elements, including catalysts. Just like components of energy source are not traceable, components of catalysts are considered to be insignificant in determining final mass of various reaction products. New science, in essence, focuses on the tangibles and adds the effect of intangibles through tangible expressions. For instance, heating is evaluated through the temperature and catalysts are measured by there mere presence and for both cases no determination is made as to how the pathway changes in presence of two sources of temperature (or catalytic reaction) that are different while have the same external expression (for instance, temperature or mass of catalyst).
Another important aspect of Islamic scholars was the recognition of water as the mother and ubiquitous phase. Islam (2014) recognized this observation and reconstituted the material balance equations to develop new characterization of materials as well as energy. Tichy et al. (2017) discussed an interesting aspect of water content and sustainability. They studied the role of humidity on the behavior of insects. Optimal functionality is a direct function of humidity optimization within an organic body. This optimization is necessary for metabolic activities, as well as overall survival abilities. From an evolutionary perspective, this need of optimum humidity can explain the existence of hygroreceptors very likely. Interestingly, these hygroreceptors are associated in antagonistic pairs of a moist and a dry cell in the same sensillum with a thermoreceptive cold cell. Although the mechanism by which humidity stimulates the moist and dry cells is little known, it is clear that the duality that Avicenna envisioned persists in all levels of natural functions. Also of significance is the fact that the moist cell and the dry cell appear to be bimodal in that their responses to humidity strongly depend on temperature. Either modality can be changed independently of the other, but both are related in some way to the amount of moisture in the air and to its influence upon evaporation (Tichy et al., 2017). This scientific model was altered by subsequent European scholars, who recognized the natural refining process through the ‘theory of three humidities’ (Newman, 2014).
Figure 2.4 Scientific pathway of a chemical reaction modified from Kalbarczyk (2018).
2.2.4 Arsenic Sulphide
Arsenic sulphide, in its natural form has been in use for longest time. Similar to any other natural products, Arsenic trisulfide had a wide range of industrial use, including tanning agent, often with with indigo dye. Orpiment is found in volcanic environments, often together with other arsenic sulfides, mainly realgar (“ruby sulphur” or “ruby of arsenic”). Similar to mercury, this naturally occurring chemical was used throughout history as a potent poison or a medicine (Frith, 2013). Arsenic was used in traditional Chinese as well as Indian medicine. In addition, it was popular as a cosmetic product in eye shadow in the Roman era. In traditional Chinese medicine, preparations can be obtained in the form of coated or uncoated pills, powder or syrups. Different studies have shown that the majority of traditional Chinese medicines, such as Chinese herbal balls, show high doses of As varying between 0.1 and 36.6 mg per tablet, causing patients to get intoxicated by the high As dose and Indian ayurvedic herbal medicine products are also known to cause lead, mercury and As intoxication.
Avicenna recommended arsenic with the gum of pine for asthma. He also prescribed arsenic in honey water, for a wide range of remedies, including for herpes esthiomenos of the nose (Aegineta, 1847). Avicenna discussed the use of white, red, and yellow arsenic, all being used in their natural state. It was much later that ‘refined’ arsenic emerged. For instance, arsenic was known as early as the fourth century B.C., when Aristotle referred to one of its sulfides as “sandarach,” or red lead (now known as As4S4). It was only in 1250 that Albertus Magnus, a German philosopher and alchemist that isolated the element. Of course, the word arsenic comes from the Persian word “zarnikh,” which means “yellow orpiment,” which the Greeks adopted as “arsenikon”. This is commonly denominated as Arsenic trisulfide (As2S3), although natural state contains other chemicals that are in perfect balance with the molecular form. Of course, the more common form is crystalline oxides, As2O3 (white arsenic). The most common form, however, is the Arsenopyrite (FeAsS), an iron arsenic sulfide, also called mispickel.
Nowadays, the therapeutic use of As is making a comeback in modern medicine. Arsenic-trioxide, for instance, is used in treating patients with relapsed acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL). However, the notion of natural state of arsenic being different from synthetic one’s is absent.
Long before being hailed as “the arsenic that saved” in early 20th century (Vahidnia et al., 2007), Muslim scholars considered Arsenic sulphide as a chemical of crucial pharmaceutical value. The word arsenic is derived from the Persian zarnikh and Syriac zarniqa, later incorporated into ancient Greek as arsenikon, which meant “masculine” or “potent” and referred primarily to orpiment, or yellow arsenic. The word became arsenicum in Latin and arsenic in old French, from which the current English term is derived (Vahidnia et al., 2007).
In post-Renaissance Europe, the use of arsenic as a poisoning agent became common. Its application in getting rid of wealthy people became so popular that by the 17th century France, white arsenic became known as poudre de succession, the ‘inheritance powder’ (Vahidnia et al., 2007). In the 19th century, the same tactic was used to commit insurance fraud. During that era, one of the most infamous case was that of Goeie Mie (‘Good Mary’) of Leiden, The Netherlands, who poisoned at least 102 friends and relatives between 1867 and 1884, distributing arsenic-trioxide (ATO) in hot milk to her victims after opening life insurance policies in their names. Of the 102 people poisoned, 45 persons became seriously ill, often with neurological symptoms and 27 persons died; 16 of whom were her own relatives (De Wolff and Edelbroek, 1994).
Research during that period led to the development of post-mortem detection of poison, followed by decrease in incidents of poisoning with arsenic. During the 19th century, European women applied arsenic powder to whiten their faces as well as to their hair and scalp
