and minimum heart rate for different age groups (From Isl...Figure 3.6 Tangible/intangible duality continues infinitely for mega scale t...Figure 3.7 The transition from time/matter yin yang to energy/mass yin yang....Picture 3.1 It is reported that two galaxies are in a collision course (Cowa...Figure 3.8 Characteristic speed (or frequency) can act as the unique functio...Figure 3.9 Rendering real value into artificial loss, while profiteering.Picture 3.2 The difference between charcoal and diamond can be captured in t...Figure 3.10 Yin yang feature of the various components of water and petroleu...Picture 3.3 This single-celled green diatom won Rogelio Moreno Gill of Panam...Picture 3.4 Diatoms.Figure 3.11 Phase diagram of hydrogen (From Service, 2017).Figure 3.12 Phase diagram of oxygen (from Yen and Nicol, 1987).Figure 3.13 The water-food-energy nexus (from Lal, 2013).Figure 3.14 Carbon-oxygen duality is linked to fire water duality.Figure 3.15 Depiction of thermo-nuclear reactions.Figure 3.16 Temperature profile of the atmospheric layer (data from NASA).Figure 3.17 Spectrum of the greenhouse radiation measured at the surface (mo...Figure 3.18 Conceptual model of the electrical structure in mature, mid-lati...Picture 3.5 Plasma state in the surface of the sun (credit NASA).Figure 3.19 Time-height plot of kinematic, electrical, and cloud microphysic...Figure 3.20 World map of the frequency of lightening (From NASA, 2019).Figure 3.21 Yin yang behaviour in natural elemental ‘particles’.Figure 3.22 The nitrogen cycle.Figure 3.23 Of many different kinds exist within the earth’s waters, soil, a...Figure 3.24 the production of sustainable and unsustainable ammonia.Figure 3.25 Long term variation of the amount of N internationally traded th...Figure 3.26 Amount of extra biomass accumulated for usage of fertilizer.Figure 3.27 The world rise in millions of metric tons (Tg) of N in fertilize...Figure 3.28 The world rise in millions of metric tons (Tg) of N in fertilize...Figure 3.29 World fertilizer use for various types (data from FAO, n.d.).Figure 3.30 Approximate composition of soil.Figure 3.31 Schematic of amino acid metabolism in plants (Redrawn from Fagar...Figure 3.32 Structures of certain amino acids with uncharged side chains (fr...Figure 3.33 Structures of certain amino acids with charged side chains (from...Figure 3.34 Possible reaction mechanisms for nitrogenase. Shown are two poss...Figure 3.35 Ammonification and its relation to other processes.Figure 3.36 Schematic representation of the marine nitrogen cycle and its co...4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Energy outlook for 2040 as compared to 2016 under various scenari...Figure 4.2 Public perception toward energy sources (Ipsos, 2011).Figure 4.3 Petroleum is the driver of world economy and driven by political ...Figure 4.4 Oil prices in history since Second World War until 2018 (From Isl...Figure 4.5 Unconventional oil and gas production. (a) oil; (b) gas from EIA ...Figure 4.6 Oil price during the most recent conflict and civil war in Libya ...Figure 4.7 Discounts and correlation with political events (From Cheong, 201...Figure 4.8 Short-term energy outlook (From EIA, 2019a).Figure 4.9 Gas price (in $/million BTU) (From EIA, 2018).Figure 4.10 Gas price (in $/1000 Cuft) (From EIA, 2017).Figure 4.11 $/million BTU gas price history of recent years (from EIA, 2019a...Figure 4.12 USA energy outlook (EIA, 2018).Figure 4.13 Long term projections based on past performace in USA (from EIA,...Figure 4.14 Overall energy trade (From EIA, 2019).Figure 4.15 Role of technology on US oil production (From EIA, 2019).Figure 4.16 Significant because shows the coupling between technology and pr...Figure 4.17 Natural gas trade (EIA, 2019).Figure 4.18 Electricity generation for various energy sources (EIA, 2019).Figure 4.19 US energy consumption by sector and by fuel type (EIA, 2019).Figure 4.20 World energy consumption during 1992–2017 (From BP, 2018), milli...Figure 4.21 Actual global oil production (surface mined tar sand not include...Figure 4.22 Global energy consumption through power generation (BP, 2018), e...Figure 4.23 Reserve to production ratio for various regions. (BP, 2018).Figure 4.24 Proved reserve for various regions. (BP, 2018).Figure 4.25a Crude oil production continues to rise overall (From EIA, 2017)...Figure 4.25b U.S. reserve variation in recent history (From Islam et al., 20...Figure 4.26 Technically recoverable oil and gas reserve in the United States...Figure 4.27 Sulfur content of U.S. crude over last few decades (From EIA, 20...Figure 4.28 Declining API gravity of U.S. crude oil (EIA, 2016).Figure 4.29 Worldwide crude oil quality (from EIA, 2016).Figure 4.30 Even in the short term, the modern age is synonymous with decoup...Figure 4.31 Whole rock Rb-Sr isochron diagram, basement samples (from Islam Figure 4.32 Natural processing time differs for different types of oils.Figure 4.33 Natural processing enhances intrinsic values of natural products...Figure 4.34 The volume of petroleum resources increases as one moves from co...Figure 4.35 Cost of production increases as efficiency, environmental benefi...Picture 4.1 Images of burning crude oil from shale oil (left) and refined oi...Figure 4.36 Overall refining efficiency for various crude oils (modified fro...Figure 4.37 Crude API gravity and heavy product yield of the studied US and ...Figure 4.38 Current estimate of conventional and unconventional gas reserve....Figure 4.39 Abundance of natural resources as a function of time.Figure 4.40 As natural processing time increases so does reserve of natural ...Figure 4.41 ‘Proven’ reserve is miniscule compared to total potential of oil...Figure 4.42 Gulf of Mexico Basin region, the petroleum-producing region of t...Figure 4.43 General region from which petroleum is produced from formations ...Figure 4.44 Area from which petroleum is produced from the Frio Formation, B...Figure 4.45 Three phases of conventional reserve.Figure 4.46 Unconventional reserve growth can be given a boost with scientif...Figure 4.47 Probability distributions for production from wells of an oil or...Figure 4.48 Production data of gas wells in fields in the Ellenburger Group ...
5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Reservoir images; (a) natural setting; (b) dual-porosity modeling...Figure 5.2 The knowledge model: The abstraction process must be bottom up.Figure 5.3 Schematic cross-sections of borehole breakout and drilling-induce...Figure 5.4 Onshore map of distribution of wells logged with borehole imaging...Figure 5.5 Comparison of resistivity images visualising Drilling Induced ten...Figure 5.6 Comparison of methods of visualizing a 4 m long borehole breakout...Figure 5.7 Section of resistivity images visualizing 3 distinct borehole bre...Figure 5.8 Total SHmax orientation from borehole breakouts from two differen...Figure 5.9 Rose diagrams comparing stress field orientations from this study...Figure 5.10 Map highlighting orientations of SHmax derived from breakouts ob...Figure 5.11 Map highlighting orientations of SHmax derived from breakouts ob...Figure 5.12 Map highlighting orientations of SHmax derived from breakouts ob...Figure 5.13 Diagram of fractures radius and dip angle for the generated subs...Figure 5.14 Schematic representation of reservoir pressure (Top) after (a) 1...Figure 5.15 The different steps used in optimizing the subsurface fracture m...Figure 5.16 Plot of fracture intensity versus mean square permeability (from...Figure 5.17 Pressure change and pressure derivatives after inversion at well...Figure 5.18 Reconstructing fracture history.Picture 5.1 Surface fractures (Akbar et al., 1993).Figure 5.19 The fracture orientations commonly found in the Middle East (Mah...Figure 5.20 Different types of fractures. (a) intercrystal fractures; (b) un...Figure 5.21 Illustration of the fracture sets in: a folded environment with ...Figure 5.22 Illustration of the fracture sets in a reference environment (fr...Figure 5.23 Schematic of the two zones on the Earth’s crustal region.Figure 5.24 Variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fracture den...Figure 5.25 Variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fracture den...Figure 5.26 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.27 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.28 Variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fracture den...Figure 5.29 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.30 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.31 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.32 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.33 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.34 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.35 Depiction of Warren and Root model .Figure 5.36 Schematic of mud flow in a tight formation with fractures (after...Figure 5.37 Data from a well drilled overbalanced until a certain depth and ...Figure 5.38 Mud log data from a portion of a well drilled underbalanced in t...Figure 5.39 Schematic of the model used by Norbeck (2012).Figure 5.40 Locations of conductive natural fractures along the lateral of W...Figure 5.41 Cross-plot of mud pit volume peak vs. gas peak corresponding to ...Figure 5.42 Locations of conductive natural fractures along the lateral of W...Figure 5.43 Cross-plot of mud pit volume peak vs. gas peak corresponding to ...Figure 5.44 Plan view of Field A. Wells A-1 and A-2 are parallel wells drill...Figure 5.45 Natural fracture system orientation #1 for Field A. A dominant p...Figure 5.46 REV in fractured reservoirs is greater than core size (redrawn
