Internal Combustion Engines. Allan T. Kirkpatrick

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straight through the cylinder and out the exhaust port, a process called short circuiting. Some of the air will also mix with exhaust gases and the remaining incoming air will push out a portion of this mixture. The magnitude of the problem is strongly dependent on the port designs and the shape of the piston top.

      Less than perfect scavenging is of particular concern if the engine is a carbureted gasoline engine, for instead of air being in the crankcase there is a fuel–air mixture. Some of this fuel–air mixture will short circuit and appear in the exhaust, wasting fuel and increasing the hydrocarbon emissions. Carbureted two‐stroke engines are used where efficiency is not of primary concern and advantage can be taken of the engine's simplicity; this translates into lower cost and higher power per unit weight. Familiar examples include motorcycles, chain saws, outboard motors, and model airplane engines. However, use in motorcycles is decreasing because they have poor emission characteristics. Two‐stroke industrial engines are mostly diesel, and typically supercharged. With a two‐stroke diesel or fuel injected gasoline engine, air only is used for scavenging, so loss of fuel through short circuiting or mixing with exhaust gases is not a problem.

1.4 Engine Performance Parameters

      Engine Geometry

A simple model of the crankshaft, connecting rod, piston, and head assembly of an engine cylinder is the flat‐top slider crank mechanism shown in Figure 1.6. Of particular interest are the following geometric parameters: bore , connecting rod length , crank radius , stroke , clearance height , and crank angle . The stroke is twice the crankshaft radius .

      The term (tdc) of an engine refers to the crankshaft at a position = 0. The cylinder volume at this position is minimum and is called the clearance volume, . The term (bdc) refers to the crankshaft at a position = 180. The cylinder volume at bottom dead center is the maximum volume .

Figure 1.6 Engine slider crank geometry.

The compression ratio is defined as the ratio of the maximum to minimum volume.

      (1.1)

      The displacement volume is the difference between the maximum and minimum volume; for a single cylinder,

      (1.2)

      Useful expressions relating , , , and are

The piston clearance height at top dead center is

      (1.5)

      For multicylinder engines, the total displacement volume is the product of the number of cylinders, , and the volume of a single cylinder.

      (1.6)

      The mean piston speed is an important parameter in engine design since stresses and other factors scale with piston speed rather than with engine speed. Since the piston travels a distance of twice the stroke per revolution it should be clear that

      (1.7)

      The engine speed refers to the rotational speed of the crankshaft and is in units of revolutions per second or revolutions per minute (rpm). The engine frequency, , also refers to the rotation rate of the crankshaft but in units of radians per second. Examples 1.1 and 1.2 provide unit conversions for engine rpm.

      Engine Work, Power, Torque, and Mechanical Efficiency

      The indicated work of an engine is the net work done by the gas during a compression and expansion cycle. It is equal to the integral of the pressure over the cylinder volume:

      (1.8)

      The engine power is the rate at which work is done by the engine, and for an engine with cylinders is

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