double planting of seeds at the e...Figure 56.11 Yield map. The color differences indicate differences in yield....Figure 56.12 Land leveling with a high‐vertical‐accuracy RTK GNSS which is u...Figure 56.13 Map showing variable rate (VR) zone prescription. Different soi...Figure 56.14 Example scatter plot of positions recording for 24 hours using ...25 Chapter 57Figure 57.1 One of the first PDA‐based navigation products, 2002.Figure 57.2 TomTom GO Portable Navigation Device, 2004.Figure 57.3 Fitbit activity tracker, measures steps, stairs, and sleep (2013...Figure 57.4 Pebble smartwatch (2013).Figure 57.5 Apple smartwatch (2016).Figure 57.6 The wearable body‐mapping sleeve.Figure 57.7 Intel MICA bracelet (2014).Figure 57.8 Photoplethysmogram (PPG).Figure 57.9 MEMS microcantilever resonating inside a scanning electron micro...Figure 57.10 Example of an MEMS gyroscope.Figure 57.11 Acceleration data from the x‐axis of an accelerometer generated...Figure 57.12 Acceleration data combined from all axes.Figure 57.13 TomTom device with OHR sensor (2016).Figure 57.14 Commonly accepted BMI ranges.Figure 57.15 Temp Traq temperature sensor patch (2015).Figure 57.16 Comparison of wireless technologies (numbers are indicative).Figure 57.17 Global wearables forecast 2014–2020.
26 Chapter 58Figure 58.1 Accuracy of an automated steering farm tractor using differentia...Figure 58.2 Path generation using a GPS‐guided John Deere tractor.Figure 58.3 Stanford Team with the GPS‐guided John Deere tractor.Figure 58.4 GNSS‐guided farm tractor performing precision tilling in Auburn,...Figure 58.5 GNSS control of a towed implement (Bevly and Parkinson [15])....Figure 58.6 Precision planting (no marker arms required).Figure 58.7 Cooperative farm operation (combine unloading onto grain cart du...Figure 58.8 Example of precision crops (left) post planting and (right) pre‐...Figure 58.9 Follow‐up farm operations of (left) cultivating and (right) harv...Figure 58.10 Concept autonomous tractors from Case IH and John Deere.Figure 58.11 Example vehicles from the inaugural DARPA Grand Challenge.Figure 58.12 First DARPA Grand Challenge course and finishing position for a...Figure 58.13 Images from the First DARPA Grand Challenge.Figure 58.14 Route for the second DARPA Grand Challenge race.Figure 58.15 Oshkosh TerraMax at the finish line of the second DARPA Grand C...Figure 58.16 Google self‐driving Prius with a roof‐mounted Velodyne LiDAR an...Figure 58.17 Automated vehicle legislation across the United States as of De...Figure 58.18 GPS velocity measurements from a static receiver.Figure 58.19 GPS velocity direction of travel measurement accuracies as a fu...Figure 58.20 Schematic demonstrating the use of multiple antennas on a body ...Figure 58.21 Attitude accuracy as a function of antenna baseline spacing.Figure 58.22 Stanford's autonomous racing Audi with dual antennas for high d...Figure 58.23 Automated truck convoys utilizing dual antennas for vehicle hea...Figure 58.24 Multiple antennas for correcting GNSS positions at the roof to ...Figure 58.25 Carrier‐phase differential GNSS exploits the temporal and spati...Figure 58.26 Platooning with short separation distances is possible with hig...Figure 58.27 Spatial and temporal differential GNSS techniques can be levera...Figure 58.28 Current and previous positions of the lead and following vehicl...Figure 58.29 Comparison of single‐frequency (L1) and dual‐frequency (L1/L2) ...Figure 58.30 An autonomous vehicle can use Dynamic base Real Time Kinematic ...Figure 58.31 Plot of single‐frequency (L1) and dual‐frequency (L1/L2) mean i...Figure 58.32 Plot of the integer ratio test result for single‐frequency and ...Figure 58.33 Plot of the stability of the east or north components of three ...Figure 58.34 Plot of the stability of the stand‐alone GPS (red) and TDCP (bl...Figure 58.35 Planar vehicle model schematic.Figure 58.36 Schematic of lateral tire forces versus tire slip angle of a ty...Figure 58.37 Longitudinal tire force versus longitudinal slip under various ...Figure 58.38 Auburn University Infiniti G35 equipped with IMU, CAN measureme...Figure 58.39 Vehicle yaw rate (left) and side slip (right) during a driving ...Figure 58.40 GPS velocity compared to wheel speed derived velocity and the r...Figure 58.41 Longitudinal force (estimated from longitudinal acceleration) v...Figure 58.42 GNSS‐based estimation of tire radius for various tire pressures...Figure 58.43 GPS/INS block diagram.Figure 58.44 Plot of GPS and GPS/INS course accuracy as a function of vehicl...Figure 58.45 Multi‐antenna GPS and multi‐antenna GPS/gyro attitude accuracy ...Figure 58.46 Vehicle steering wheel angle (at the handwheel) and yaw rate fo...Figure 58.47 GPS/INS‐estimated vehicle (and error) from the double‐lane‐chan...Figure 58.48 GPS/INS‐estimated vehicle roll (and error) from the double‐lane...Figure 58.49 Plot of estimated and measurement vehicle position in the geode...Figure 58.50 GPS/INS‐estimated side slip during the maneuver shown.Figure 58.51 Tire force on an asphalt surface.Figure 58.52 Tire force on a gravel surface.Figure 58.53 Block diagram of a Kalman filter that utilizes both IMU measure...Figure 58.54 Plot of east and north IMU dead‐reckoning solution with no cons...Figure 58.55 Plot of the horizontal error with respect to the reference solu...Figure 58.56 Plot comparing the estimated longitudinal speed derived from IM...Figure 58.57 Block diagram of Kalman filter‐based navigation system fusing G...Figure 58.58 Plot of stand‐alone GPS (red), GPS/INS (blue), and GPS/INS/VDM ...Figure 58.59 Block diagram of a Kalman‐filter‐based navigation system fusing...Figure 58.60 Conceptual depiction of the four scans of the LiDAR that are us...Figure 58.61 Plot of navigation solutions for stand‐alone GPS, GPS/INS, and ...Figure 58.62 Road map lateral constraints and satellite signal with line‐of‐...Figure 58.63 Picture of urban canyon showing that the line of sight in the l...Figure 58.64 Plot of lateral lane position estimates using only GPS/INS with...Figure 58.65 Plot of lateral lane position estimates using GPS/INS and visio...Figure 58.66 Plot of longitudinal position error of the navigation system us...Figure 58.67 Plot of longitudinal position error of the navigation system us...Figure 58.68 Plot of the estimated vehicle position using only INS and LiDAR...Figure 58.69 Plot of north and east position errors of the navigation soluti...Figure 58.70 Plot comparing pseudorange only (red), GPS/INS (yellow), and GP...Figure 58.71 Plots comparing vector tracking GPS receiver position estimates...Figure 58.72 Auburn University demonstration of truck platooning at 50 foot ...Figure 58.73 States having passed legislation allowing close gap truck plato...Figure 58.74 Fuel savings results versus gap spacing from an SAE Type 2 fuel...Figure 58.75 Delphi electronically scanning radar range compared to Dynamic ...Figure 58.76 Auburn University’s NCAT test track demonstrating loss of range...Figure 58.77 Output for the 64 Channel Delphi Electronically Scanning Radar ...Figure 58.78 Dynamic base Real Time Kinematic (DRTK)‐based classification of...Figure 58.79 GPS‐estimated road grade and resulting following distance error...Figure 58.80 GPS‐estimated road grade and resulting following distance error...Figure 58.81 GPS road grade estimate compared to the profilometer‐measured r...Figure 58.82 Spoofing detection algorithm based on radar ranges versus GPS‐g...Figure 58.83 Conceptual diagram showing the selection of the desired aiming ...Figure 58.84 The desired following vehicle heading (ΨR) is calculated u...Figure 58.85 Diagram showing the experimental setup for the lead and followi...Figure 58.86 Plots of the paths of the lead and following vehicle during tes...Figure 58.87 Plot of total lateral path error (gray) and the reference path ...
27 Chapter 59Figure 59.1 Track circuit principle.Figure 59.2 ERTMS level 1.Figure 59.3 ERTMS Level 2 (L2).Figure 59.4 ERTMS Level 3.Figure 59.5 The position error components.Figure 59.6 Standard deviation of the overbounding Gaussian distribution nor...Figure 59.7 Deployment of a virtual balise (VB) protecting a supervised loca...Figure 59.8 High‐integrity, high‐accuracy two‐tier architecture.Figure 59.9 Augmentation network architecture – 2nd Tier.Figure 59.10 Multipath effects in rail scenarios (yellow: standalone GNSS, r...Figure 59.11 Computation of confidence interval.Figure 59.12 Train localization geometry.Figure 59.13 Reference station sites.Figure 59.14 Stanford diagram – scenario #1 (Neri et al. [7]).Figure 59.15 Number of satellites used in the PVT estimation – scenario #1 (...Figure 59.16 Stanford diagram – satellite faults (Neri et al. [7]).Figure 59.17 Number of satellites used for PVT estimation – satellite faults...Figure 59.18 Baseline geometry.Figure 59.19 GPS+GLONASS RTK train locations (red circles) Rome–Cassino rail...Figure 59.20 A posteriori probability of each hypothesis (true track in blue...Figure 59.21 Train mileage versus time.Figure 59.22 Geometry‐free combination (L1‐L2) (Hsu et al. [11]; Beitler et ...Figure 59.23 Multiple‐track geometry.
28 Chapter 60Figure 60.1 UTM architecture (Aweiss et al. [24]).Figure 60.2 General hierarchy of guidance, navigation, and control (GNC) fun...Figure 60.3 Autonomy of a commercial multi‐copter platform in presence of GP...Figure 60.4 Geo‐fenced field next to a school.Figure 60.5 Conceptual boundaries for assured containment
