Appendix
14 References
15 Index
List of Illustrations
1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1. Definition of the sinusoid. For a color version of this figure, see ...Figure 1.2. Representation of pure sound as a function of time. For a color vers...Figure 1.3. Phase of pure soundFigure 1.4. Time shift due to phase shiftFigure 1.5. Curves of equal intensity perceived versus Fletcher-Munson frequency...Figure 1.6. Modification of the audibility threshold by the simultaneous masking...Figure 1.7. Temporal mask effect (from (Haas 1972))Figure 1.8. The tuning fork produces a damped sinusoidal sound variationFigure 1.9. Example of a complex sound constituted by the sum of 3 pure sounds o...Figure 1.10. Example of a complex sound constituted by the sum of 3 pure sounds ...
2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1. Scott de Martinville’s phonautograph, Teylers Museum, Haarlem, The N...Figure 2.2. Spectrogram of the first known Clair de la Lune recording, showing t...Figure 2.3. Ludwig’s kymographs (source: Ghasemzadeh and Zafari 2011). For a col...Figure 2.4. Waveform and spectrogram of the first known recording of a tuning fo...Figure 2.5. Waveform of an [a] in the 1860 recording of Scott de Martinville. Fo...Figure 2.6. Graphical waveform calculation resulting from the addition of pure t...Figure 2.7. La Nature, No. 998, July 16, 1892. Apparatus of M. l’abbé Rousselot ...Figure 2.8. Analog magnetic recording chainFigure 2.9. Digital recording chain. For a color version of this figure, see www...Figure 2.10. Polar response curves of omnidirectional, bidirectional and unidire...Figure 2.11. A recording session with Chief Parakatêjê Krohôkrenhum (State of Pa...Figure 2.12. Aliasing. Insufficient sampling frequency misrepresents the signal....
3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1. Four realizations of [a] in stressed syllables of the same sentence ...Figure 3.2. Effect of the phase change of three harmonics on the waveform, resul...Figure 3.3. Diagram of the principle of harmonic analysis in Fourier seriesFigure 3.4. Correspondence between the temporal (left) and frequency (right) rep...Figure 3.5. Transformation of a sampled segment into a periodic signalFigure 3.6. Increase in frequency resolution with duration of the time windowFigure 3.7. Time sampling of pure sound through a rectangular windowFigure 3.8. Spectrum of pure sound at 1,500 Hz, 512 dots, 46 ms seen through dif...Figure 3.9. Time sampling of the speech signal through a Hann(ing) window. The s...Figure 3.10. Wavelet analysis window, 6 cycles at 3 different frequencies corres...Figure 3.11. Wavelet spectrogram, 5 cyclesFigure 3.12. Wavelet spectrogram, 10 cyclesFigure 3.13. Wavelet spectrogram, 15 cycles
4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1. Normal breathing cycle and during phonation. For a color version of ...Figure 4.2. Variation in buccal airflow [dm3/s], subglottic pressure [hPa] and F...Figure 4.3. Simplified diagram of the voice fold control systemFigure 4.4. Estimation of glottic waveforms obtained by electroglottography, mal...Figure 4.5. Glottic wave spectrum showing the decay of harmonic peaks from the f...Figure 4.6. Jitter and shimmer (vowel (a))Figure 4.7. Speech production model
5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1. Implicit model in LPC analysisFigure 5.2. Comparison of Prony spectra of the order of 12 with a window of 2 ms...
6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1. Overlapping analysis windowsFigure 6.2. Pure sound analyzed at 1,000 Hz, respectively, with a 25 ms rectangu...Figure 6.3. Narrowband (top left) and wideband (bottom left) spectrograms. To th...Figure 6.4. Locating silences in [efafanəvizaʒamɛləbarakyda] (phonetic transcrip...Figure 6.5. Locating silences in [ʃi:æbsIlu:tlırıfju:zıztʊgoʋʊaIʊtIloʋʊnætnaIi:t...Figure 6.6. Locating unvoiced fricatives [efafanəvizaʒamɛləbarakyda]Figure 6.7. Locating unvoiced fricatives [ʃi:æbsIlu:tlırıfju:zıstʊgoʋʊaIʊtIloʋʊn...Figure 6.8. Locating voiced fricatives [efafanəvizaʒamɛləbarakyda]Figure 6.9. Locating voiced fricatives [ʃi:æbsIlu:tlırıfju:zıstʊgoʋʊaIʊtIloʋʊnæt...Figure 6.10. Locating unvoiced stop consonants [efafanəvizaʒamɛləbarakyda]Figure 6.11. Locating unvoiced stop consonants [ʃi:æbsIlu:tlırıfju:zıstʊgoʋʊaIʊt...Figure 6.12. Locating voiced stop consonants [efafanəvizaʒamɛləbarakyda]Figure 6.13. Locating voiced stop consonants [ʃi:æbsIlu:tlırıfju:zıstʊgoʋʊaIʊtIl...Figure 6.14. Locating vowels [efafanəvizaʒamɛləbarakyda]Figure 6.15. Locating vowels and diphthongs [ʃi:æbsIlu:tlırıfju:zıstʊgoʋʊaIʊtIlo...Figure 6.16. Locating nasal consonants [efafanəvizaʒamɛləbarakyda]Figure 6.17. Locating nasal consonants [ʃi:æbsIlu:tlırıfju:zıstʊgoʋʊaIʊtIloʋʊnæt...Figure 6.18. Schematic diagram of automatic segmentation into phonesFigure 6.19. Example of on-the-fly segmentation with slowdown of the speech sign...Figure 6.20. Alignment by dynamic comparison (Dynamic Time Warping, DTW)Figure 6.21. Vowel [a]: Fourier spectrum wideband, narrowband and Prony’s spectr...Figure 6.22. Spectrogram from the beginning of the “Air de la Reine de la nuit” ...Figure 6.23. Prony spectrum of order 12, 10 and 8Figure 6.24. Prony spectrum of order 6, 4 and 2Figure 6.25. Prony spectrum of order 100 showing peaks corresponding to the harm...Figure 6.26. Comparison of Fourier and Prony spectrogramsFigure 6.27. Example of a recording level that is too low: the harmonics of the ...Figure 6.28. Example of a recording level that is too high: harmonic saturation ...Figure 6.29. Presence of constant frequency noise harmonics (musical accompanime...Figure 6.30. Effect of MP3 encoding-decoding on the narrowband representation of...Figure 6.31. Spectrograms at the same bandwidth for a male and female voice (11 ...
7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1. Repeated characteristic laryngeal vibration pattern as a function of...Figure 7.2. Patterns for another occurrence of vowel [a]Figure 7.3. Patterns for an occurrence of vowel [i]Figure 7.4. Effect of phase change on three harmonic components added with diffe...Figure 7.5. Definition of laryngeal (pulse) frequencyFigure 7.6. Example of a pitch curve displayed as a function of time and varying...Figure 7.7. Waveform (oscillographic curve) of a vowel [a]Figure 7.8. Oscillographic curve of a vowel [i] showing the effect of harmonic p...Figure 7.9. Manual measurements of laryngeal frequency from the vowel waveformFigure 7.10. Effect of amplitude variations on the measurement of periods by bia...Figure 7.11. Principle of F0 calculation by autocorrelationFigure 7.12. Non-linear preprocessing of the signal center clipping (a) and peak...Figure 7.13. Measurement of F0 from an analog narrowband spectrogram. To reduce ...Figure 7.14. Example calculation of a cepstrum: Fourier spectrum, logarithm of t...Figure 7.15. F0 detection by the spectral comb method. Teeth of the optimal comb...Figure 7.16. The sawtooth function and its spectrum used by SWIPE to detect F0Figure 7.17a. Pitch curve of the sentence “I’ve always found it difficult to sle...Figure 7.17b. Pitch curve of the sentence “I’ve always found it difficult to sle...Figure 7.18. Simultaneous display of the pitch curve and a narrowband spectrogra...Figure 7.19. Creaky segment with irregular pitch periods (vocal fry)Figure 7.20. Creaky segment with very long laryngeal periodsFigure 7.21. Creaky segment with laryngeal period pairing (pitch doubling)Figure 7.22. Spectrogram of a modal-diplophonic-modal sequenceFigure 7.23. Principle of speech signal decomposition by the Psola methodFigure 7.24. Slowing and speeding up speech through Psola decomposition/recompos...Figure 7.25. Slowing and speeding up speech through Psola decomposition/recompos...Figure 7.26. Modification of the fundamental frequency of speech through Psola d...Figure 7.27. Direct and inverse Fourier analysis of the phase vocoderFigure 7.28. F0 and spectrum modification
