shows predominantly the hyperfine-split lines arising from coupling to the I = 1/2 nuclear spin of 77Se. The additional features in the spectrum correspond to the residual isotopes of Se and the presence of Se-H pairs. The measurement was performed at 23 K using the microwave frequency of 9.38 GHz (Nardo [48]).
With the development of sensitive magnetometry, such as super-conducting quantum interference device (SQUID), the paramagnetism induced by defects or impurities can also be measured in an intergral method. By fitting the experimental data according to the Curie theory, one also can get the momentum number and get some information about the defects. For instance in ion or neutron irradiated SiC, the paramagnetism from defects was measured by SQUID magnetometry. The magnetization is proportional to the concentration of defects. In some cases, the paramagnetic centers can couple with each other ferromagnetically. Defect induced ferro-magnetism has been observed in various materials, such as the results in Chapters 7, 8 and 9.
6. Conclusions
As a general conclusion, we wish to emphasize that the defect characterization involves (i) observing the defect related phenomena with specific electrical, optical or magnetic properties, (ii) revealing the nature of the responsible defects, and (iii) studying the creation and evolution of the defects in a material or device fabrication process. These include the experimental spectroscopic methods characterizing the electrical, optical, magnetic and structural properties of the defects and materials. Notably to obtain a comprehensive picture of the defect, correlative studies between different experimental spectroscopic methods are preferable to increase the chances for non-ambiguous identifications.
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