(the lateral prefrontal cortex, the part of the frontal cortex that is also involved in processing the meaning of words). This may be one reason why people who are particularly prone to forming fake memories tend to perform very well on association tests.20
Seen from this angle, it’s possible to interpret such over-exuberant false memories somewhat differently, as an especially creative strength of the brain. If our brain were to always function with precision and perfect replicability, like a computer that is able to open up a saved photo with the same quality, we would never have the opportunity to use our memory for new thoughts. Astonishingly, the formation of false memories goes hand in hand with the formation of new ideas and problem solving.21 Test subjects were particularly spontaneous and intuitive in coming up with umbrella terms for groups of words if they had first been stimulated to create false memories. The ability to think associatively, to draw correlations, or invent them is only possible if we free ourselves from rigid forms of memory and recollection. Errant memories are a necessary by-product of the way in which we think—namely, that we are not so much fixated on data or details as on meaning and stories.
It’s not true, but it sure rings true
MEMORIES HAVE TWO main functions for us. We use them to construct an identity with our past and to learn from our experiences in order to improve going forward. For both of these functions, our memories need to be flexible, not static. The caveat is that flexibility also implies vulnerability.
The more we remember, the more we embellish our recollections and thereby distort our memories. However, in order to plan for future events, this is precisely the trait that we need. A what-would-happen-if thought experiment only works if we aren’t clinging too fiercely to specific details of the past but, instead, let ourselves go a teensy bit mad. This madness occurs spread across a collection of about half a dozen brain regions that are predominantly concentrated in the frontal and parietal lobes (and in the hippocampus network). It doesn’t matter too much which specific regions these are. What matters is that these regions are as much involved in simulating future events as in “recalling” things that already happened.22 In other words, in order to be able to imagine something happening later on, we have to deconstruct that which has already taken place and to creatively glue it back together again, like a collage. Of course, this pushes against our desire for a dependable memory and—admittedly—can possibly lead to a mismatched or falsified memory in the end. However, the advantage is much greater; namely, we are able to imagine virtually any possible future (even one that is impossible). It is only by accepting our memory failures that we are able to have and entertain new ideas.
And if you’re worried that we forget a lot of things or remember them falsely, please don’t forget that memories are not obligated to explain the world as it is. We use memories much more to help us feel comfortable in the here and now. Studies have shown that people very deliberately (though not necessarily consciously) falsify memories of their past in order to generate a harmonious state in the present. For example, if one asks a group of students to recall their abilities “only a short time ago” at the beginning of the semester, they evaluate themselves as having been similarly capable and experienced as in the present moment when they are being questioned. But if a second group of students is asked to remember how they began their semester “back then, quite a while ago,” they estimate their earlier selves as being more naive and immature—even when the start of the semester is no further in the past than it was with the first group of students.23 The more you were a blithering idiot in the past, the better you appear today. Our past self is a fabulous scapegoat because it can’t defend itself. This is how we can excuse the negative and persuade ourselves of the positive, twisting the past in order to construct a consistent image of ourselves.
In general, every one of our memories is false and, each time we recall one, it becomes even more false. But if this wasn’t the case, and if our memories were imprinted once and for all at the moment when they occur, we would never be able to go in afterwards to “update” and expand these memories later on. This kind of unmodifiable, static memory prison is not a very nice state to imagine, especially because you would then be too inflexible to imagine much of anything anymore. It is thus a good thing that we often make so many mistakes when we are remembering things. Maybe our memories are not quite as true, but they certainly ring true.
4
BLACKOUT
Why We Choke under Pressure and the Secret Formula for Fending Off Stage Fright
THE YEAR IS 1998. On April 25th, Comdex, one of the largest computer trade shows in the world, is underway in Chicago. Bill Gates is about to premiere his new super operating system, Windows 98, to the world. His colleague, Chris Capossela, plugs a scanner into the PC to demonstrate just how flawlessly the device is able to recognize the new Windows system. But what happens next is not supposed to happen. Zap! The computer crashes. An enormous blue-screen error message is projected onto the screen behind the two men, an embarrassing error clearly visible to every single journalist who is present to cover the event. The hall erupts with laughter, and somewhere in California, Steve Jobs rubs his hands together in delight. Bill Gates pauses for a moment before quipping: “That must be why we’re not shipping Windows 98 yet.” In spite of everything, he still manages to crack a joke. No computer in the world would be able to improvise in the same way. After all, mistakes can happen to anyone. In this regard, a computer is only human. And without such innocent mistakes, the world would be much less colorful (or blue, in the case of the Windows error message). You might be interested to know that Chris Capossela was not fired over this incident but continues to work for Microsoft as chief marketing officer—where he now premieres the latest software all by himself. Because anyone who is able to survive a moment like that can surely handle tough times.
Take heart. A mental blackout at the worst possible moment can happen to even the best of us. You can practice and train as much as you’re able, but the truth is that under pressure, we all make the worst mistakes. It is an embarrassing truth for sure, but one that is also human. Adele blanks on the lyrics to her song in 2016 in Manchester. Christina Aguilera mixes up the second and fourth lines of “The Star-Spangled Banner” at the 2011 Super Bowl. Italian player Roberto Baggio misses the all-or-nothing penalty kick at the 1994 soccer World Cup against Brazil. These are all examples of what can happen if one relies too much on one’s brain. Even a person who is a master in their field is not exempt from such intellectual blunders.
For those of us who are mere mortals, mistakes seem to happen precisely at the moment when we would most like to avoid them. The more pressure we feel, the harder it is to perform flawlessly. This happens not only up on stage in front of thousands of screaming fans, but also when we are taking exams, or being interviewed, or while making a presentation to our colleagues. Our brain turns to mush in the very moment when we need it to do its job well. The brain is reminding us, once again, of its very impractical neural characteristic—namely, that it is not an organ like the heart or liver that functions evenly and regularly and always at the same pace (though a case might be arguable for the latter). No. The brain’s performance fluctuates. And sometimes it even fails in its primary task.
But why does this happen? Why does our brain become particularly prone to fault whenever it faces heavy external pressure or stress? And is there a secret formula that we might employ to help us conquer our stage fright, test anxiety, or public-speaking jitters and instead give us a boost so we can put our best foot forward at the critical moment? Because there are people who seem to be exceptional performers—whether they are entertainers or athletes—who appear to shine in the do-or-die moment. How do they do it?
The step-by-step trap
THERE ARE MANY situations that carry the risk of choking under pressure. This is the reason why there is variation in the brain’s processes. Some moments are in fact predetermined for us to lose our mental cool and to tense up. Allow me to pause here
