the table or units in the table. For this table, the reader is informed that it includes all persons over the age of 25 and the units are reported in thousands.].
The title is followed by a headnote, “for Persons 25 Years Old and Over, Reported in Thousands.” [Comment: Headnote (or subtitle): Many tables will have a headnote or subtitle under the title, giving information relevant to understanding the table or units in the table. For this table, the reader is informed that it includes all persons over the age of 25 and the units are reported in thousands.]
Characteristic, [Comment: Marginal tabs: In examining the numbers in the table, try working from the outside in. The marginals, the figures at the margins of the table, often provide summary information. In this table, the first column of numbers is headed “Population, within parenthesis, 1,000,” indicating, within parenthesis by thousands, the total number of people in each category who were part of the database. The columns to the right indicate—by percentages—the level of educational attainment for each category.]
Age, [Comment: Headings and stubs: Tables generally have one or two levels of headings under the title and headnotes. These instruct the reader about what is in the columns below. In this table, the headings indicate the level of education achieved so that the reader can identify the percentage with a specified level of education. The table also has a stub: the far-left column under “characteristic.” This lists the items that are being compared according to the categories found in the headings. In this case, the stub indicates age, sex, and race or ethnicity.]
The row with heading “35 to 54 years old” under the tab age has 7 cells with different values. [Comment: Cells: To make more detailed comparisons, examine specific cells in the body of the table. These are the boxes that hold the numbers or percentages. In this table, the cells contain data on educational achievement by age, sex, and race/ethnicity (for Asians, Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics).]
Back to Figure
A figure shows a table, with a few comments on it to illustrate how to read a research table. The comments on the table are as follows:
Table 2.1 (2)
Row head “male” under the row titled, “sex” is termed as units. [Comment: UNITS: Units refer to how the data are reported. They could be in percentages, in number per 100 or 1,000, or in other units. In this table, the data are reported first in raw number in thousands and then in percentages.]
The row with head, “white superscript 2,” [Comment: Facts from the table: After reviewing all this information, the reader is ready to make some interpretations about what the data mean. In this table, the reader might note that young adults are more likely to have a college education than older citizens, though those in the middle age bracket are more likely to have graduate degrees. In addition, people with Asian backgrounds have the highest levels of education. What other interesting patterns do you see?]
Source given under the table reads, “U.S. Census Bureau (2017).” [Comment: SOURCE: The source note, found under the table, points out the origin of the data. It is usually identified by the label “Source.” Under this table, the source note says “U.S. Census Bureau (2017).”]
Column head. “Associate’s Degree” has a superscripted 1 and row heads, “White” and “Black” are superscripted, indicating the footnotes given at the end of the table. Footnote 1: Includes vocational degrees, footnote 2: For persons who selected this race group only. [Comment: Footnotes: Some tables have footnotes, usually indicating something unusual about the data or where to find more complete data. In this table, two footnotes are provided so that the reader does not make mistakes in interpretation.]
Part II Social Structure, Processes, and Control
© iStock.com/photovs
Picture a house. First, there is the foundation, then the wood frame, and then the walls and roof. This provides the framework or structure. Within that structure, activities called processes take place—electricity to turn on lights and appliances, water to wash in and drink, and people to carry out these processes. If something goes wrong in the house, we take steps to control the damage and repair it.
Now compare that picture of a house with a society. The social structure of a society, its groups and organizations, is the framework of society. The social processes are the dynamic activities of society that take place within those structures. This section begins with a discussion of the structure of society, followed by the processes of culture and socialization through which individuals are taught cultural rules—how to live effectively within their society’s structure. Although socialization of individuals takes place primarily at the micro level, we explore its implications at the meso and macro levels as well.
If we break the social structure into parts, such as the wood frame, walls, and roof of a house, it is the groups and organizations (including large organizations, or bureaucracies) that are parts of the social structure. To work smoothly, these organizations depend on people’s loyalty so that the participants do what society and its groups need to survive. However, these components do not always work well together. Things break down. Leaders in societies try to control disruptions and deviant individuals in order to maintain their control of social structures, whatever their goals may be.
As we explore the next few chapters, we continue to examine social life at the micro, meso, and macro levels, for as individuals we are profoundly shaped by social processes and structures at larger and more abstract levels, all the way to the global level.
Chapter 3 Society and Culture Hardware and Software of Our Social World
▲ Depending on what resources are available where we live and what is considered usable and edible, we put something out to eat. It might be a juicy hamburger, dog meat, or bugs. What we consider food is influenced by the organization of food production, distribution, technology, and the culture—ideas about what is edible. In the opening photo, an international market is bustling with activity as people shop for the kinds of foods considered nutritious and tasty in their culture.
© iStock.com/Christian Mueller
What Will You Learn in This Chapter?
This chapter will help you to do the following:
3.1 Describe the structure (the “hardware”) of our social world
3.2 Illustrate how culture affects individuals, groups, and societies
3.3 Provide examples of microcultures, subcultures, countercultures, and global cultures
3.4 Compare key ideas in the symbolic interactionist, functionalist, and conflict perspectives on culture
3.5 Explain why culture (the “software”) from one society does not always “fit” with the structure (“hardware”) of another society
