research process, Step 8, is to draw conclusions and present the final report. The report includes a discussion of the results, draws conclusions as to whether the hypotheses were supported or answers were found for the research question, interprets the results, and (if appropriate) makes recommendations on how to use the findings. This report is usually reviewed by other social scientists, and feedback on the study is provided to the researcher. After this step, the report (if it holds up to peer review) may be publicly disseminated. As part of the presentation and discussion of results, reports often contain tables or figures presenting summaries of data to help the reader easily understand the patterns found in the data. The next Engaging Sociology (pages 48–49) provides useful tips on reading research tables found in journal articles, newspapers, and magazines.
Engaging Sociology
How to Read a Research Table
A statistical table is a researcher’s labor-saving device. Quantitative data presented in tabular form are clearer and more concise than the same information presented in several written paragraphs. A good table has clear signposts to help the reader avoid confusion. For instance, Table 2.1 shows many of the main features of a table, and the list that follows explains how to read each feature.
Table 2.1 Educational Attainment by Selected Characteristics: 2017, for Persons 25 Years Old and Over, Reported in Thousands
Ethical Issues in Social Research
What happens if a scientist conducts research that has negative impacts on the participants? It is due to this concern that most universities and other research organizations, especially those receiving public money, have human subjects review boards. The boards review the proposed research plans and methods to be sure they will not hurt the subjects. Of special concern are research projects in medical sciences, but social scientists must also have their research reviewed.
Sociologists and other scientists are bound by the ethical codes of conduct governing research. The American Sociological Association (ASA) code of ethics outlines standards that researchers are expected to observe when doing research, teaching, and publishing. They include
explaining the uses and consequences of the research and gaining informed consent from respondents;
taking steps to ensure the privacy of respondents;
being objective, reporting findings and sources fully;
making no promises to respondents that cannot be honored;
accepting no support that requires violation of these principles;
completing contracted work; and
delineating responsibilities in works with multiple authors.
Examples of unethical research include studying people without their knowledge or consent, including only data that support the results you would like to see, and violating the confidentiality of your subjects by revealing their identities. The bottom line is that researchers must do everything they can to protect their subjects from harm.
Thinking Sociologically
Distinguish the differences in each of these approaches to gathering data in sociology and identify a potential ethical problem in each approach:
experiments
observational studies
interviews
questionnaires
content analysis
secondary analysis
Putting Sociology to Work: Public Sociology
Most early sociologists—including Lester Ward, the first president of the American Sociological Association—promoted sociology as a means for improving society (Calhoun 2007). As the discipline of sociology grew from its early days and became an acknowledged social science, some sociologists advocated for “pure” research disconnected from social policy issues and the public sphere. Throughout the history of the discipline, sociologists have debated their proper role in society.
However, like physicists, chemists, and geologists, many sociologists believe that, in addition to pure research, there are both important practical applications of the discipline and many policy issues that need to be informed by good social science. Today, there is a movement to recall the roots of sociology and make sociology more public, that is, of use to society. Public sociologists use sociological tools to understand and inform citizens about how society works and to improve society. Some help create and advocate for social policies that their research indicates will have a positive impact on society. Public sociologists—whether professors or those in a variety of professions outside academia—share a common goal: to better understand how society operates and to make practical use of their sociological findings to better society (Pickard and Poole 2007).
Some public sociologists work outside of academia and use sociological knowledge and research skills to address organizational needs or problems in government, education, health care settings, social service agencies, and businesses. They work for clients or organizations that often determine the research questions they will address. Depending on their positions, they may be known as sociological practitioners, applied sociologists, clinical sociologists, policy analysts, program planners, or evaluation researchers, among other titles. They focus on pragmatic ways to improve organizations or society, sometimes recommending major changes and sometimes proposing modest policy proposals.
Some sociology professors build a public sociology emphasis into their courses, hoping not only to work with students to improve the social environment in which they live but also to foster important skills for students entering the job market. The next Sociologists in Action feature (page 50) describes one such effort.
Sociologists in Action
Kristin Kenneavy Using Sociology to Improve Campus Life and Gain Marketable Skills
I did not become a sociologist to live in an ivory tower. Rather, I envisioned busting down the castle gate and doing work that would have a positive impact. As a result of my orientation to sociology, I created a Public Sociologies course in which students learn skills relevant to their careers and lives—gathering and analyzing data to understand and address social issues on our campus and in the wider community. One issue my students have worked on is interpersonal violence on campus. Students can play an important role in preventing such violence through a variety of strategies. For example, they might personally intervene if they see a couple arguing, call a resource who can diffuse the situation (such as a resident assistant or campus safety officer), or simply state their discomfort when a friend talks about women in a sexist way.
A number of bystander intervention training programs now attempt to teach these skills. Our campus chose to use the Green Dot program, a violence prevention program that focuses on peers and culture. My students and I agreed that we would help our Women’s Center to evaluate the effectiveness of the Green
