explained in the next Sociology in Our Social World.
Sociology in Our Social World
Deaf Subculture in the United States
by Thomas P. Horejes
The deaf subculture possesses its own language, norms, and social networks that are unique to the deaf. American Sign Language (ASL) has its own conversational rules and social norms such as mandatory eye gaze and appropriate facial expressions. Like other subcultures, the deaf subculture celebrates its own arts and entertainment, including deaf poetry, deaf music, deaf theater, and deaf cinema. The arts of the deaf subculture are often expressed visually through perspectives, experiences, and/or metaphors only understood by those who are fluent in ASL and a part of the deaf subculture. There are social gatherings and events by associations within the deaf subculture that host annual conferences and tournaments ranging from the Deaf World Softball Championships to the Rainbow Alliance of the Deaf (an LGBTQIA organization). As with other subcultures, there is a deaf history and heritage passed on from generation to generation.
Many of the 5% to 10% of deaf children born to deaf parents are immediately enculturated into their own deaf subculture. In contrast, a large majority (90%–95%) of deaf children (including myself, born to hearing parents) start with an identity from the larger world (hearing society). As we progress throughout life, however, our identities become negotiated as we become more aware of a subculture—a deaf subculture that each of us has embraced differently. Some reject the deaf subculture in favor of total immersion into hearing society whereas others navigate in the deaf subculture but in different ways. In addition to those born deaf, many individuals become deaf later in life due to age, illness, or even prolonged exposure to loud sounds.
Regardless of how one becomes deaf, some individuals rely on technology (hearing aids or cochlear implants), communicate with hearing individuals via spoken or written English or through an ASL interpreter, and express willingness to join a workplace dominated by members of the hearing society. Other deaf individuals become fully immersed into the deaf subculture or what they call the deaf “world.” They may attempt to depart from the hearing culture by rejecting values and beliefs possessed by the hearing society such as assistive-listening devices and speech therapy, and by not placing their deaf child in hearing schools. These people typically attend only deaf plays, read about deaf history, take on jobs where communication is through sign language, and forbid any voiced language in favor of equal “access” in all aspects of their daily activities. One common denominator in shaping deaf identity and deaf subculture is language: the incorporation of sign language in the deaf individual’s life.
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Thomas P. Horejes received his PhD at Arizona State University in justice studies and teaches sociology at Gallaudet University, the world’s only university with programs and services specifically designed to accommodate students who are deaf or hard of hearing. He is the author of Social Constructions of Deafness: Examining Deaf Languacultures in Education (Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press, 2012).
A give-and-take exists between subcultures and the dominant culture, with each contributing to and influencing the other. Sometimes the differences between the two lead to tension and conflict. When conflict between a subculture and the larger culture becomes serious and important norms of the dominant society are violated, a different type of culture may emerge as an outcome of the conflict.
A counterculture is a group with expectations and values that contrast sharply with the dominant values of a particular society (Yinger 1960). An example of a counterculture is the Old Order Amish of Pennsylvania and Ohio. The Amish drive horse-drawn buggies and seldom use electricity or modern machines. They reject many mainstream notions of success and replace them with their own work values and goals. The Old Order Amish prefer to educate their children in their own communities, insisting that their children not go beyond an eighth-grade education in the public school curriculum. They also do not use automobiles or conventional tractors. The Amish are pacifists and will not serve as soldiers in the national military.
Some countercultures such as the Amish continue over time and can sustain members throughout their life cycle. Like subcultures, they may operate at the meso level, but unlike subcultures they reject mainstream culture. Moreover, some countercultural groups, such as punk rock groups or violent and deviant teenage gangs, are short-lived or are relevant to people only at a certain age. These countercultural groups operate at the micro level but create more conflict with the dominant culture than microcultures.
Yet other types of countercultures seek to withdraw from society, to operate outside its economic and legal systems, or even to bring about the downfall of the larger society. Examples include survivalist groups such as racist militia and skinheads, who reject the principles of democratic pluralism. In the United States, the number of antigovernment “patriot” groups has increased dramatically over the past decade (Anderson 2017). They believe “that the federal government is conspiring to take U.S. citizens’ guns and destroy their liberties as it paves the way for a global ‘one-world government’” (Potok 2013a:1). Countercultures are not necessarily bad for society. According to conflict theory, which was introduced in Chapter 2, the existence of counterculture groups is clear evidence that there are contradictions or tensions within a society that need to be addressed. Countercultures often challenge the unfair treatment of groups in society that do not hold power. They sometimes develop into social organizations or protest groups. Extremist religious and political groups, whether Christian, Islamic, Hindu, or any other, may best be understood as countercultures against Western or global influences that they perceive as threatening to their way of life. Figure 3.5 illustrates the types of cultures in the social world and the relationship between countercultures and their national culture. Countercultures, as depicted, view themselves and are viewed by others as “fringe” groups—partial outsiders within a nation.
▼ Figure 3.5 Cultures at Various Levels in the Social World
Thinking Sociologically
Describe a counterculture group whose goals are at odds with those of the dominant culture. Do you see any evidence to show that the group is influencing behavioral expectations and values in the larger society? What effect, if any, do countercultures have on your life?
National and Global Culture: Macro-Level Analysis
Canada is a national society, geographically bounded by the mainland United States to the south, the Pacific Ocean and Alaska to the west, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Arctic to the north. The government in Ottawa passes laws that regulate activities in all provinces (which are similar to states or prefectures), and each province passes its own laws on regional matters. These geographic boundaries and political structures make up the national society of Canada.
National Society and Culture.
The national society (introduced in Chapter 1) is a population of people, usually living within a specified geographic area, who are connected by common ideas, cooperate for the attainment of common goals, and are subject to a particular political authority. Within the nation, there may be smaller groups, such as ethnic, regional, or tribal subcultures, made up of people who identify closely with others in the group Most nations have a national culture of common values and beliefs that tie citizens of a nation together. The national culture affects the everyday lives of most citizens. Within
