at the micro or meso level stand in opposition to the dominant national culture, and they are called countercultures.
Various theories offer different lenses for understanding culture. Whereas symbolic interaction illuminates the way humans bring meaning to events (thus generating culture), functionalist and conflict theories examine cultural harmony and conflict between cultures, respectively.
The metaphor of hardware (society’s structure) and software (culture) describes the interdependent relationship of society and culture, and as with computers, there must be some compatibility between the structure of a society and the culture. If there is none, either the cultural elements that are transported into another society will be rejected or the culture will be “reformatted” to fit the society.
Discussion Questions
1 Think about the different types of societies described in this chapter. In which type of society (hunter-gatherer, herding, horticultural, agricultural, industrial, or postindustrial) would you prefer to live? Why? In which would you most likely be (a) economically successful and (b) content? Why?
2 This chapter points out that today material culture “drives the globalization process.” Read the labels on your clothing and look around at what your classmates are wearing and carrying and come up with some examples that support that point.
3 Think of a subculture to which you belong. What are the norms, values, and material artifacts that distinguish members of your subculture from those who do not belong to it?
4 Every classroom has norms of behavior. Some are mores, and some are folkways. Describe two of each in a typical classroom at your school. How are both enforced? How do you help enforce these norms?
5 Are you part of a counterculture? Why or why not? In what ways might a counterculture benefit a society?
Key Terms
agricultural societies 63
beliefs 76
counterculture 81
cultural relativism 72
culture 58
ethnocentrism 70
formal sanctions 77
global culture 84
herding societies 62
horticultural societies 62
hunter-gatherer societies 61
ideal culture 76
industrial societies 63
informal sanctions 77
language 77
laws 77
material culture 73
mechanical solidarity 61
microculture 79
national culture 83
nonmaterial culture 74
norms 76
organic solidarity 61
postindustrial societies 64
real culture 76
sanctions 77
social construction of reality 85
society 58
subculture 80
technology 65
values 74
Contributing to Our Social World: What Can We Do?
At the Local (Micro) Level
Immigrant and refugee aid groups are ethnically oriented organizations that assist recent immigrants in dealing with adjustment to life in a new country at the local level. Contact one of these local groups and explore the possibility of volunteering or serving as an intern. You should be able to determine if one is in your area by Googling the name of your town or city, the name of the ethnic group, and “immigrant aid group” or “refugee aid group.”
At the Organizational or Institutional (Meso) Level
Ethnic group organizations and clubs focus on the interests of specific ethnic groups: Arabic Americans, Chinese Americans, Italian Canadians, Polish Canadians, and so on. You may have one or more groups on your own campus. Contact one of these groups (of your own background or of a background that differs from your own). Arrange to attend one of the group’s meetings and learn about the subculture and activities in which its members are involved. To find an ethnic association on campus, call your campus activities office. To find one in your local area, try Googling the name of the ethnic group, “club,” and the name of your town or city.
At the National or Global (Macro) Level
The United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues assists indigenous (native) people around the world who face threats to their cultures, languages, and basic rights as the process of globalization accelerates. We have experienced this in North America in relation to Native American and Inuit populations, but it is occurring throughout the world. Visit the forum’s website at www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples and contact the forum about the possibility of volunteering.
Cultural Survival is an example of a leading nongovernmental organization (NGO) engaged in action-oriented programs. The organization partners with indigenous people to “defend their lands, languages, and cultures.” Look at their website (www.culturalsurvival.org) for internship and volunteer opportunities.
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Descriptions of Images and Figures
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