and release of tension5 Enjoyment through relaxation (Ritter & Low, 1996, p. 249)
6 Promotion of empathy and prosocial behavior (Behrends et al., 2012)
As approaches used in therapeutic settings, dance and movement are premised on a number of theoretical assumptions (Best, 2000). The first comes from the psychoanalytic literature, through the implicit belief that the initial awareness of self is through the body (Freud, 1923/1961). It is further assumed that body movement (as a representative aspect of the unconscious) may inform the conscious mind of feelings and repressed influences that affect a person’s life (Payne, 2020). “Movement conveys truth” and “is the direct printout from the unconscious” (Hendricks, 1982, p. 166). In this tradition, dance and movement promote awareness and further “the physical and psychic integration” of people (Krueger & Schofield, 1986, p. 327). These avenues of expression help clients heal their fragmentation and alienation from themselves and others (Chaiklin & Wengrower, 2016; S. K. Levine, 1996; Thomson, 1997).
A second premise on which dance and movement in counseling is based is bodywork. There are many forms of bodywork, including
various forms of massage, rolfing, bioenergetics, yoga, Tragerwork, Lomi bodywork, and acupressure. They are all designed to help people dissolve psychophysical blocks in the body. Some are more physical in nature (massage), and others focus more on psychological blocks (bioenergetics). Direct manipulation of the body often triggers memories of old traumas and injuries or can produce a flood of feelings. (Weinhold, 1987, p. 7)
When people work their bodies through dance and movement, avenues of awareness that were previously closed begin to open up. Bodywork seeks to help people become more integrative. It is especially effective with people who are closed to talking about their feelings.
Creative Reflection
When have you connected with someone else through movement or dance, for example, by playing a sport or being in a dance contest or recital? What do you remember most about the experience and how it affected or still affects you?
A third rationale for incorporating dance and movement into the therapeutic process is based on developmental theory. Human behavior is initially dominated by physically oriented experiences. In infancy, movement is a primary way of communicating. “The bodily interaction between mother and infant is, in a sense, the first dialogue. In harmonious relationships this physical give and take becomes a smoothly flowing piece of choreography, a perfect symbiotic dance” (Mohacsy, 1995, p. 33). Regardless of how rhythmic interpersonal relationships are, people pass through a number of different physical stages in life, each of which is characterized by distinct movement patterns.
A fourth rationale for using dance and movement in counseling is based on gestalt therapy, which has recognized the potency of movement for many years (Payne, 2006). Fritz Perls and others involved in the formulation of gestalt therapy stressed that moving the body is a primary method of experiencing feelings and promoting psychological growth (Meier & Davis, 2019). Perls probably overstated his case when he said, “Lose your mind and come to your senses.” Nevertheless, this adage has value in reminding clients that by using all aspects of themselves they will make progress in working through personal issues. In movement and dance, the expressions of choice and change become visibly clear.
Furthermore, the use of movement and dance in counseling is founded on social psychology and the interpersonal theory of Harry Stack Sullivan, which emphasizes that personality is formed in relationship to others. The basis of movement and dance is to “establish or reestablish a sense of relatedness to self and to others” (Stark & Lohn, 1989, p. 107). In rhythmic movement, a person feels a “heightened sense of oneself (a flow of energy, a feeling of aliveness, and sense of well-being), [which facilitates] bonding and empathic response in the body with others” (Stark & Lohn, 1989, p. 107). Movement and dance are connecting arts that unite people with themselves and others by providing an integrative mind-body experience.
Practice of the Use of Dance and Movement in Counseling
Dance and movement occur in many ways, and their impact is multidimensional. In their purest form, dance and movement are initially expressed in physical movements. Indeed, the body is seen as the manifestation of one’s personality, and the body and the mind are seen as interrelated on a continuum. Therefore, any spontaneous movement is viewed as an expression of personality and health (Dingfelder, 2010). Thus, the way people move—from being light on their feet to being mechanical and slow—is an indicator of who they are and how they are functioning generally.
The therapeutic emphases of dance and movement are multiple. “Dance and movement therapy allows for the treatment of complex psychological trauma (torture, rape, war experiences) and contributes to the healing process directly on a body level” (S. Koch & Weidinger-von der Recke, 2009, p. 289). Overall, DMT has three main goals: physical, psychological, and social goals.
Physical goals may include releasing physical tension through activities and broadening one’s movement repertoire. Psychological goals might include channeling one’s self-expression in a meaningful way and helping a client adjust to reality. Social goals may involve getting a client to join a group interaction and to develop social relationships with others. (Gladding, 1985, p. 10)
The extent to which and how these goals are highlighted depend on the education and skill of counselors. Some professionals are specifically taught ways to use DMT; others use this emphasis at select times and in limited ways. In this section, different aspects of each tradition are examined, and populations with which movement and dance may best be used are explored. DMT effects changes in feelings, cognitions, physical functioning, social interaction, and behavior. Although they have much in common, dance and movement are also seen as distinct specialty areas.
Marian Chace (1896–1970) is considered the founder of modern DMT (Sandel et al., 1993). She started her dance therapy work in the early 1940s at St. Elizabeth’s Hospital in Washington, DC, and was a professional dancer before beginning her work as a dance therapist. Other pioneers who followed or were contemporaries of Chace include Mary Whitehouse, Blanche Evan, Liljan Espenak, Alma Hawkins, and Trudi Shoop.
Creative Reflection
When have you found your body telling your mind something important, such as it is time to sleep, eat, or exercise? Do you tend to listen to such messages or ignore them? What is behind your reaction?
Both dance and movement therapists acknowledge “the intrinsic life forces in all people, the healing power of shared rhythms and expressed feelings” (Hendricks, 1982, p. 166). They believe in a reciprocal influence between a person’s emotions and body movement. Changes in body movement can bring about positive changes in a person’s psychic life and vice versa. Yet despite these similarities, professionals in the fields of DMT maintain many distinctions.
Dance Therapy
Dance therapy is the use of dance and movement as psychotherapeutic (healing) tools (Payne, 2006). Dance and movement therapists who specialize in this area have met educational and performance standards set by the American Dance Therapy Association. The term dance is used by dance therapists to stress the “expressive movement and the integrating aspects of the rhythmic use of body movement” (Duggan, 1981, p. 229). Thus, dance therapy connotes the artistic nature of performance through movement and the use of music to promote rhythm and fluidity in this process. “Through dance one becomes more fully alive—physically,
