spiritually. It opens a path toward one’s higher self—a way to transcend the mundane” (Fisher, 1989, p. 15). Dance enables one to cognitively process and overcome frightening events, feel one’s physical self, analyze problems, find constructive solutions for everyday life, and improve one’s body image and self-esteem (Bräuninger, 2012a). Music and music therapy are closely associated with dance and dance therapy.
Movement Therapy
In movement therapy, practitioners place less emphasis on performance and outside stimuli and concentrate more on feelings and senses. Therefore, movement therapy may include more improvisation and intuitive ways of acting. Through this approach, people are trusted to act on their emotions and are encouraged in various ways to become more connected with their inner selves (Jacobs et al., 2016). The action associated with movement therapy is usually spontaneous, unrehearsed, and relatively brief. “The process of the mover [how the mover moves] is the focus of movement therapy” (Hendricks, 1982, p. 167). Drama and enactment techniques are closely allied with movement therapy.
Dance and Movement in Counseling
As noted previously, few traditional counseling theories have basic rationales that emphasize dance and movement as primary ways of clarifying or resolving problems. Nevertheless, dance and movement therapists consider such psychologically based authorities as Sigmund Freud, William James, Gordon Allport, Wilhelm Reich, Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, Alfred Adler, and Harry Stack Sullivan to have been influential in the development of their specialty (Chaiklin & Wengrower, 2016). For example, Liljan Espenak, a pioneer in dance therapy, based much of her work on integrating Adlerian concepts with the discipline of dance therapy. These Adlerian concepts included aggressive drive, inferiority feelings, social feelings, lifestyle, and first memory. The nonverbal emphases of other theorists have been especially valued by dance and movement therapists. The following examples illustrate how theories of counseling and movement are used separately or together.
The first example is gestalt therapy. It has two primary foci centered on movement. One focus is simply body language, in which the counselor and eventually the client concentrate on what different parts of the body are doing in conjunction with the client’s verbalizations. A client may claim to be calm and relaxed while simultaneously making a kicking motion. The incongruence of these messages is pointed out, and the client is confronted with the inconsistency of verbal and nonverbal signals (Gladding, 2018). In the process, clients are encouraged to examine and own their personal feelings and behaviors more directly.
The other focus of gestalt therapy is the movement encouraged with the technique of becoming a dream (in which a dream event is enacted). In this process, each part of a dream (e.g., people, events, and moods) is considered to be a projection of the self, and parts often represent contradictory roles. Dreamers are asked to become each part of their dream and to invent dialogue and interactions between the various components regardless of how absurd such a process may seem. Through this technique, opposite sides are expressed and become clearer, and the dream becomes the “royal road to integration” (Perls, 1969, p. 66).
A second example of how theories of counseling and movement are used involves social learning theory and family therapy, both of which focus on what many in these approaches call the dance: regular rhythmic interactions that enhance or impede one’s overall functioning. These perspectives emphasize developing social skills and competencies through dance. Selective dances are shaped and reinforced using a plethora of techniques derived from these traditions. The way in which individuals and family members generally relate to significant others in their lives determines how rigid, spontaneous, or healthy their lives will be. For example, in a social situation, a husband and wife may constantly put each other down or compliment and encourage each other. As a result of these actions, their behavior will be either positive (spiraling up in a virtuous cycle) or negative (spiraling down in a vicious cycle).
Additional examples of how theories of counseling and movement are used separately or together involve atheoretical approaches, and these include a number of effective generic movement and dance experiences. Many of these approaches are associated with groups. For example, a movement activity that creates greater awareness among group members about the nature of conflict is home spot. In this nonverbal experience, individuals are asked to join hands or put their arms around one another’s shoulders. Then they are to pick out a spot in the room to which they wish to take the group, without telling anyone. Finally, they begin trying to move the group toward the spot they have selected. The ongoing group dynamics are the primary focus of the exercise as group members struggle with issues of power and persuasion in a 2- to 5-minute time span. After the struggle that inevitably comes with the exercise, group members talk to one another about the specifics as well as the general nature of the dance they just went through and what it can mean for the life of the group and their own individual lives.
Overall, movement (and dance) are actively practiced as a part of counseling because they
get people moving around and keep them from becoming fatigued from sitting too long in one spot,
provide a change in format and an opportunity to renew interest and energize,
give individuals a chance to experience something rather than simply discuss it,
help participants remember what they experience more vividly than words alone, and
involve all people in a counseling experience or the total person that is the client in a way not possible otherwise.
Dance and Movement in Counseling With Specific Populations
Professional dance and movement therapists (and those who use these modalities in counseling) “work with all ages and populations—in psychiatric hospitals, prisons, geriatric residence programs, adolescent halfway house settings, special education programs, and private practice” (Hendricks, 1982, p. 166). A representative sampling of the settings and techniques used is presented here; however, movement and dance are constantly being created and implemented. Those who prefer these active, art-based ways of working with clients must be innovative in their endeavors.
Children
A primary characteristic of many children is abundant energy, so they often enthusiastically accept the use of dance and movement in therapy. Movement activities with children focus on self-awareness. For instance, directed DMT may help abused children exercise control over their personal space and regain a sense of control and ownership of their own bodies (Cristobal, 2018; Goodill, 1987). Movement and dance also help children gain an awareness of others. Several types of movement exercises can engage children and promote different aspects of their mental and physical health quite concretely (Tortora, 2005).
Exercises for Physically Functional Children
Walking. In this activity, children walk in a circle at their normal pace and cadence. After they have a feel for how they walk, they are asked to walk faster than usual and then to walk in slow motion. Walking is then linked to feelings, so that the children walk as if they were tired, happy, or sad. After this experience, children are instructed to act as if they were walking on or through different terrain, including a desert, a mountain, mud, ice, water, and even silly substances such as peanut butter, whipped cream, yogurt, and cornflakes. After the walk is completed (usually by pretending to walk through a grassy meadow), children and their leaders talk about what the experiences were like.
Locomotion.
