of the U.S. television audience in 1959: a white, middle‐class family seated in the living room of their home watching TV together. Photo: Everett Collection/Shutterstock.
Independent filmmaking did flourish briefly in the 1980s and 1990s, because of the developing technologies of home video and cable TV, which desperately needed scores of films to fill program schedules and video‐store shelves. A large number of the independent films of this period dealt with race, class, gender, sexuality, and ability in new and important ways. Some of this was a result of the newest generation of film‐school graduates, a group that now included women and people of color, partly because of affirmative action legislation. A number of openly lesbian and gay filmmakers also found opportunities in independent filmmaking at this time. The success of some of these filmmakers has led Hollywood conglomerates to hire and promote more women, people of color, LGBTQ folks, and differently abled people, and to make a few films not focused on white heterosexual males and their adventures. By the mid‐1990s, however, many of the smaller independent film distributors were either driven out of business or absorbed by the major Hollywood corporations. For example, in the 1990s, Miramax was absorbed by Disney, and New Line Cinema became a part of the Time‐Warner corporation.
Today, the Hollywood‐independent dichotomy is somewhat moot, as many if not most of the films playing at urban art house theatres are released by boutique subsidiary companies owned by the Hollywood majors (or acquired by them for distribution). For example, Universal releases “art house” fare under the banner of Focus Features; Twentieth Century‐Fox did the same under the brand name Fox Searchlight Pictures. Some more truly independent filmmakers decry this state of affairs, arguing that Hollywood has now co‐opted even the art house movie scene. In effect, Hollywood now produces two types of films: blockbusters and genre films destined for mainstream multiplex theatres, and smaller “prestige” films aimed at film festivals and urban art house theatres. This two‐tiered system has an impact on the representation of diversity in American films: major Hollywood releases tend to play it safe and not take too many chances with content that might be deemed risky or challenging. On the other hand, boutique subsidiary films celebrate their uniqueness and pride themselves on telling more diverse stories. Focus Features has released many films that address LGBTQ issues, including Brokeback Mountain (2005), Milk (2008), and The Kids Are All Right (2010). Likewise, Fox Searchlight Pictures has released art house hits like Boys Don’t Cry (1999), 12 Years a Slave (2013), and The Shape of Water (2017), each of which also present diverse content and characters not usually found in mainstream Hollywood films.
21st‐Century Convergence Culture
The new millennium saw a continuation of the technological advances begun towards the end of the previous century. Motion pictures and television both transitioned from their earlier formats (celluloid film and magnetic videotape) to digital files in all areas –production, distribution, and exhibition. Such a shift narrowed and blurred the distinctions between the two forms of entertainment, resulting in what many began referring to as an era of convergence. A number of feature films (like the Harry Potter movies) began acting like episodes in a television series, while TV shows (like Game of Thrones) started including special effects previously only available to big budget theatrical cinema. Today, a number of films, TV series, web‐based programs, and video games interact with each other as parts of larger cross‐media franchises. Remakes, reboots, sequels, prequels, and versions of texts that originated in another medium have dominated the twenty‐first‐century media landscape, most particularly via the rise of fantasy/science fiction properties, and especially the comic book superhero genre.
Such synergy was made possible due to the continued conglomeration of various companies into even larger multinational corporations, such as Disney’s purchase of Marvel Studios and Lucasfilm Ltd., or the ownership of DC Comics by Warner Bros. Hollywood studios also face competition from increasingly powerful streaming service providers such as Netflix and Amazon, who now also produce their own content. AT&T acquired Time Warner in 2018. That same year, a bidding war erupted between Disney and Comcast (parent company of NBC‐Universal, and the largest cable provider in the US) over the purchase of 21st Century Fox, which Disney won.
Such convergence and conglomeration are part of the larger trend towards globalization, which began to grow during the 1990s as government policies, economies, and cultures began to extend beyond traditional national boundaries. The increased international availability of media texts and social communication via new technologies enhanced a greater global awareness. The establishment of the European Union, NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), and other multinational pacts and trade discussions suggested the desire or need to shift from traditional modes of identity into the notion of the “global citizen.” Importantly, such efforts often included work to extend rights to women, LGBTQ communities, and other minoritized groups across the world, as well as standardizing labor practices and environmental regulations.
At the same time, though, resistance to globalization grew in various ways. Within the media industries, for example, Hollywood’s access to new global markets (such as China and India) was mitigated by the rise in international media piracy (abetted by the digital revolution). A number of Islamic extremist groups railed against the global spread of American culture and values via media as well. When some of those extremists attacked the United States on 11 September 2001, it fostered a similar backlash against globalization with the US. Although a number of US citizens moved to unite as a nation regardless of color, creed, or sexual orientation, others were so shocked and fearful in the aftermath of 9/11 that they sought to isolate the nation from the rest of the world. A global economic meltdown that began in late 2007, and eventually referred to as the Great Recession, was largely blamed on the collapse of multinational banks and corporations that were symbolic of unchecked globalization. Reactions included federal regulations on the financial sector and protests such as the “Occupy Wall Street” movement. The emotions roused by these events contributed to the increased polarization and instability of contemporary American culture. The US had swung from the conservative administration of President George W. Bush to the liberal policies of Barak Obama, the country’s first President of African descent. The election of President Obama led some to announce that the US was now in a “post‐racial” era – similar to other assessments of a “post‐feminist” era or even a “post‐gay” era. However, Donald Trump mobilized antagonism towards globalization to rail against progressive or liberal viewpoints, and to succeed Obama as President. Nonetheless, media movements such as Black Lives Matter or #MeToo continue to call out racism, sexism, and other forms of social injustice.
Such polarization has led not only to strident divergence in political opinion, but also fundamental disagreements over actual facts (climate change, mass shootings, terrorist activity, police interactions with racial minorities, immigration). Perhaps in an effort to uncover the truth, audience interest in documentary filmmaking grew in the 2000s. Yet, a number of these documentaries were accused of having a political bias – either left or right. The sophistication of digital technology to manipulate images and to disseminate them widely via the Internet and social media apps has made it increasingly difficult for the average citizen to distinguish between reality and “fake news.” The vast variety of entertainment options has also allowed individuals to surround themselves with images and voices that support their own viewpoints, creating a sort of “echo chamber” effect in which people rarely engage with ideas that differ from their own.
The rise of the comic book superhero genre could be said to reflect much of this turmoil. On a basic level, the desire to see superheroes quell formidable foes gives comfort to audiences still reeling from 9/11 and our subsequent military involvement in various global flashpoints. These films (and TV series) do so in a mostly comfortable, non‐threatening fashion; conversely, most films dealing directly with the Gulf War or other current events have not done well at the box office. America’s polarization has impacted the
