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1The Aadhaar (Targeted Delivery of Financial and Other Subsidies, Benefits and Services) Act, 2016 was passed by the Indian Parliament in March 2016. The Bill aims at providing statutory backing for targeted government subsidies and benefits by integrating them with Aadhaar numbers (Government of India, 2016).
2The survey excludes the state of Jammu & Kashmir and two union territories (Andaman Nicobar and Lakshadweep).
3The PPI index is made up of 10 questions on household size, assets, education and cooking sources, and can take a value of 0 to 100 (zero being the lowest). Households scoring less than 54 points are classified as Below Poverty Line (BPL) (living below USD 2.50). In 2015, the median (mean) score was 38 (39.7).
4The empirical analysis is based on Ghosh (2016a).
5The program was initially rolled out in 200 districts in February 2006 and subsequently in 130 districts in April 2007 and finally, in the remaining districts in April 2008. To understand the effect of the program on financial inclusion, we compare the impact of the implementation of MGNREGS in the first two sets of districts vis-à-vis the third set of districts.
6The PPI index is made up of 10 questions on household size, assets, education and cooking sources, and can take a value of 0–100 (zero being the lowest). Households scoring less than 54 points are classified as Below Poverty Line (BPL) (living below USD 2.50). In 2015, the median (mean) score was 38 (39.7).
CHAPTER 9
Gender, Education, and Programma Bolsa Familia in Brazil
Aparajita Gangopadhyay
Centre for Latin American Studies, Goa University, India
Introduction
In Latin America, poverty and inequality run parallel. Every state in Latin America mirrors this reality. Also, the contours of inequality run broadly along racial and ethnic lines. Data on racial and ethnic minorities in Latin America are poor, and the criteria for classification of minorities vary. Estimates suggest that indigenous groups account for about for 10% (50 million) of the region’s population, while groups of African descent account for 30% (150 million).1 Indigenous and Afro-descendent people are, when compared to the ‘whites’, as a rule, are less educated, less healthy, and have lesser access to such basic institutions like the justice system. They face greater difficulties in transforming educational and occupational achievements into income, generally earning considerably less for the same number of years of schooling.
Brazil is known for its striking levels of destitution and poverty. However, in the last few decades, democracy has promoted poverty alleviation and equity-enhancing reforms. Since, the initiation of the redemocratization process in 1985, voting rights have been restored to the ordinary people; the constitution of 1988 was one of the most progressive constitutions of Latin America and reflected the activism by the social movements in advocating the rights of the poor. The role played by the center-left and left governments in Brazil since the late 1980s have extended such programs to previously excluded or marginalized peoples. They implemented new programs which were aimed at ensuring the most basic levels of social protection. Spending increased and the social protection programs have definitely reduced poverty, but the reduction is not commensurate with the resources spent. Socioeconomic equality remains acute; notwithstanding this, there have
