4). Claude Bernard, in his first most productive years, would have dreamt of such a considerable laboratory on two floors with many rooms and personnel. The building does not exist anymore, having been replaced by a catholic chapel, but Elisabethstrasse looks much as it did back in 1889, when the laboratory assistant Josef Zinck would regularly walk the polyuric diabetic dogs.
By chance, von Mering was not present when Zinck reported to Minkowski that the dogs were urinating frequently. Both collaborated to write the papers. Minkowski had to perform pancreatectomy in more dogs, the first one had been treated with phlorizin beforehand by von Mering and Minkowski wanted to be sure that glucosuria was not simply a consequence of the administration of phlorizin. The results were published in June 1889 and with more details in 1890 [8, 9] (Fig. 5). It was a masterpiece of a succinct publication – the title provides the full message: Diabetes Mellitus following the Extirpation of the Pancreas. In September 1889 Minkowski and von Mering attended the first World Congress of Physiology in Basel accompanied by a pancreatectomized dog. It was the highlight of the conference and von Mering and Minkowski became famous worldwide.
Fig. 5. The famous publication on pancreatic diabetes, 1889 [8].
In April 1894, Elliott Proctor Joslin, already a renowned specialist in diabetes research, praised the discoveries of Minkowski and von Mering in the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal (in 1928 the name changed to New England Journal of Medicine). Joslin summarized: “The experimental work of Herr [sic!] von Mering and Herr Minkowski on the production of diabetes by pancreatic extirpation, forms one of the foremost chapters in all experimental pathology… The abdominal grafts of the pancreas are by far the most striking part of Minkowski’s and von Mering’s work. The art of the experimenter is here given full range. The pancreas is a fragile organ and quickly dies. Moreover, an animal which has been submitted to an operation on the gland is in great danger of peritonitis. Both obstacles were overcome in the following manner. The pancreas was carefully dissected from its attachments in the abdominal cavity, turned on its axis and stitched to the abdominal wall. The blood supply was disturbed as little as possible. The wound was allowed to heal, and gradually the pancreas became engrafted on its new surroundings. When this was firmly established the dog was submitted to another operation, in which the internal part of the gland was removed. On the recovery of the animal no diabetes resulted. After an interval of some time, the engrafted pancreas was removed; and when this was done, diabetes in all its forms appeared. What more striking proof could be asked for the action of the pancreas in producing diabetes?” [10]
However, there is one mistake in the Joslin’s report: von Mering was not present when the grafting experiments were carried out. After the first discovery the following research on pancreatic diabetes was performed exclusively by Minkowski. Three reasons which may explain why von Mering did not continue diabetes research are, firstly, that following some unsuccessful applications Josef von Mering was nominated in 1890 in the University of Halle an der Saale and therefore moved with his wife and his four children from Strasbourg to Halle in April 1891. The second reason is that in Halle he had signed up for an incredibly multitasking life – becoming director of the Medical Polyclinic (which included medical teaching), lecturing on otorhinolaryngology, medical chemistry, and legal medicine, as well as becoming head of department in a Catholic hospital in Halle. The third reason is that von Mering worked, with great success, in many different areas of research. He, together with the Noble prize winner Emil Fischer, discovered the first barbiturate. Indeed, von Mering also holds the accolade of having published the first clinical paper on paracetamol. Freiherr Josef von Mering, born in 1849 in Cologne, died in 1908 in Halle an der Saale. Despite his numerous discoveries there is neither a renowned academic prize, a street, nor a plaque on the places where he lived to commemorate this outstanding researcher. This may change in the future since his discovery of “phlorizin diabetes” was the beginning of the use of SGLT inhibition in diabetes care over 100 years later [11]. In contrast to von Mering, Minkowski continued diabetes research throughout his career. In the first years after the discovery of pancreatic diabetes he had to reply to numerous voices of criticism, particularly that of Eduard Pflüger [12].
Minkowski married Marie Johanna Siegel in 1894. Their two children, Rudolph and Laure, were born in Strasbourg (Fig. 6). As usual in the realm of an academic career, he had to look for a position as head of department. His applications to universities were unsuccessful, and some authors assume that German faculties were reluctant to call for Jewish candidates. Minkowski finally accepted to serve as head of department in the city-owned Augusta Hospital in Cologne. This immense hospital with over 600 beds was co-directed by the Professors Heinrich Hochhaus and Minkowski (Fig. 7). In her autobiography, the widow of Hochhaus provided the only very personal description of the Minkowskis: “Whenever a professional or scientific topic came up, his zeal and his stream of words couldn’t be stopped. He spoke precisely and always very logically and sharply, a pupil of his teacher Naunyn, pressed by an overabundance of ideas and suggestions. He forgot his counterpart completely in this world of ideas. Mrs. Minkowski was called ‘the beautiful Minka.’ She had radiant black eyes. No important cultural event and no ceremony in Cologne in which our two couples would not have taken part” [13].
Fig. 6. Birth certificate of Minkowski’s son Rudolph (online birth registry, Strasbourg).
Fig. 7. Augusta Hospital in Cologne, where Minkowski worked from July 15, 1900 to March 31, 1904 (postcard, collection Dr. Jörgens).
The Minkowski family must have enjoyed a pleasant time in Cologne. Their home was an impressive villa, walking distance from the Augusta hospital, located on Mozart Street 28. It is detestable to know that, this once-magnificent abode of a Jewish-born scientist, later became the regional headquarters, or “Gauleitung,” of the National Socialist German Workers Party (it became known in Cologne as the “brown house”) and also the headquarters for SA and SS.
Nevertheless, Cologne was just a medical academy and Minkowski was, for all intents and purposes, looking for a position in a recognized university. Eventually he was called for the chair of internal medicine in Greifswald – a small university on the Baltic Sea. Although Minkowski had some initial problems finding a suitable apartment for his family in Greifswald, he finally found an appropriate residence in Bahnhofstrasse 48/49.
Naunyn, his “scientific godfather” took a hand in Minkowski’s career. He wrote a letter to the imperial ministry of research in Berlin criticizing the fact that a renowned researcher, such as Minkowski, was working in such an irrelevant place like Greifswald. His grievances were heard and, in 1909, Minkowski was nominated in the prominent university of Breslau, the capital of Silesia, where he worked until his retirement in 1926 (Fig. 8).
