plain a posteriori that, if men are to pass their lives advantageously and pleasantly and live happily, all cannot follow the same kind of life, but, in order that all things may be done which ought
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to be done in a well-established commonwealth, as we have fully shown in the entire third chapter of the eighth part of “The Law of Nature,”1 some ought to do one thing, others another, just as in the human body there are different functions for different organs, fitted to accomplish one definite general purpose; the characteristics of the several groups of men living the same kind of life pass into the nation as a whole. But since, as before shown, it cannot happen that individuals who live the same kind of life should be the same, as likewise was before made plain, the characteristics which are to be predicated of the majority in some definite kind of life pass from them to the nation, and consequently are to be predicated of it. Which was the second point.
That the force and influence of the present proposition may be grasped, it must of course be illustrated by examples. We say, for example, that a nation is vigorous and industrious, if the majority found in it are vigorous men and the men generally are industrious. A nation is said to be vicious, if a very great number pollute themselves by every kind of vice; it is said to be intemperate, if it is a common custom to delight in excessive drinking; it is said to be licentious, if its common vice has been lust. Those who write of the customs of nations can use no other principle of distinction than that those characteristics pass from the individuals to the nation, which belong to the great majority. Likewise a nation is called rich, in which many are found who abound in wealth; that one is called educated and learned, which has many educated and learned men; the English are called excellent artisans, because manufactured articles are carefully fashioned in England; the Italians remarkable architects, because among them architecture has been cultivated and is to-day cultivated; the Dutch pre-eminent merchants, because merchandising flourishes among them in a singular manner. But it is to be observed that when a majority of those who are pre-eminent in any walk in life are to be considered, the number of those who are in one nation is customarily compared with the number of those who follow the same walk in life in other nations. But although that comparison may be especially attributed in general to
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prejudice, nevertheless this does not prevent these general principles from having a basis also in truth. For prejudices act in no other way than that principles true in themselves may be wrongly applied, just as also is often done by those, who from one or two instances, draw a conclusion as to more, because they assume wrongly that, if not all, at least very many, ought to be such as they recognize the one or two to be. But he who avoids prejudice knows that it is to be proved and not assumed that those are in the majority, from whom some characteristic is to be transferred to the nation, before it can be attributed to the nation; nor in proving that does he assume what formerly was, but what now is, when a decision as to the present is to be given, and concerning that characteristic which he assigns to the majority, or to the very great number, he decides after very careful investigation. For unless those things are observed, his decision concerning the nation will be just as false as if, those points being ignored, he should decide concerning other things.
§ 44. Of the duty of individuals arising therefrom
§ 43.
§ 152, part 1, Phil. Pract. Univ., and §§ 522, 523, part 1, Jus Nat.
Since those characteristics which are to be predicated of the greater part of a nation, or the majority in some definite kind of life, pass from the individuals to the nation as a whole and consequently are to be predicated of it; whoever belongs to a nation owes this not only to himself, but also to his nation, that, to his utmost ability, he perfect himself and his condition and so perform his work, that he may through that endeavour perfectly attain his purpose, and consequently may excel, so far as it can be done, in that kind of life which he follows.
§ 887, Psych. Emp.
§ 118, part 1, Phil. Pract. Univ.
So we owe it not only to ourselves to acquire intellectual and moral virtues, but also to the nation to which we belong, lest we be to blame for its being styled less virtuous, or lest this or that intellectual or moral virtue come to be denied to it. Likewise the scholar is bound to his nation, that it may excel especially in learning, and that he may not detract from its reputation as a learned nation, and the artisan is bound to it, that it may be adorned by the art which he practices, and that he may not by his error diminish its reputation. It is in harmony with these general ideas that the characteristics of individuals pass from them to the nation, so that the individuals also who belong to
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the nation seem to share the reputation of the others who are of the same nation. Therefore contrary to common sense are the customs of that set of scholars in Germany who discredit the men especially deserving in the republic of letters and afterwards flatter and exalt to heaven with the highest praise those things in the works of foreigners which they have ridiculed in their own, as if by flattery they could share in the reputation of a foreign nation. But from this a new motive arises to perform with all our might all duties imposed by natural law, on which is based a new natural obligation, that we should not allow ourselves to be lacking in any effort or exertion to perfect ourselves.
§ 45. Of the necessity of not bringing disgrace on one’s nation
§ 44.
§ 722, part 1, Jus Nat.
§ 395, part 8, Jus Nat.
Since each and every one owes it to his nation that, to his utmost ability, he should perfect himself and his condition and excel in the kind of life which he follows, as far as he can, and since he who is bound to do this, is bound at the same time not to do the opposite, each one ought to be on his guard, lest by doing those things which are wrong or less right, he may bring disgrace upon his nation; consequently since the ruler of a state ought to take care that citizens should not do the things which are opposed to the obligations prescribed by natural law, he therefore ought not to allow citizens to bring disgrace upon their nation.
§§ 653, 654, part 8, Jus Nat.
Many particular conclusions follow from this, since this obligation is as widely extended as are the duties of a man and citizen. And hence also follows the right to punish the acts of subjects by whom disgrace is brought upon the nation, of which we have spoken elsewhere.
§ 46. Of zeal for the reputation of one’s nation
§ 43.
§ 554, part 1, Jus Nat.
Because those characteristics pass from the individuals to the nation as a whole and are predicated of it, which come to be predicated of the greater part of a nation, or the majority in some definite kind of life, and consequently the good reputation also of the greater part, or of the majority in some definite kind of life passes over to the nation as a whole, those who are of the nation owe this not only to themselves, but also to their own nation, that its reputation should be good; consequently they
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ought to defend the reputation of their nation and country so far as in them lies.
The learned undoubtedly sin against their nation who revile with insult the men especially deserving in the republic of letters, preservers of the reputation of their nation, and who detract from their reputation or even strive with all their might to make public those things which ought rather to have been concealed, lest disgrace be imposed upon their nation. But those things which are said of
