honour, which is opposed to modesty.
§ 51. How far this applies to the ruler of the state
§ 48.
§ 38.
§ 722, part 1, Jus Nat.
Because the fame of a state depends upon its own perfection, moreover because the care of perfecting his nation and its form of government rests on the ruler of the state; the ruler of a state especially ought to strive that the nation over which he rules may deserve fame, and he ought to direct the royal acts to the glory of his nation, consequently to do nothing which can diminish or destroy it.
Note, § 50.
The desire for the fame of his nation is a part of the duty of the ruler of a state, who deserves well of it, if in that he allows his diligence to be in no respect lacking; but he deserves ill of it, if in that regard he shows himself remiss. But when he strives for the fame of his nation, he does nothing which can be blamed, and his acts remain untouched by any imputation of evil. The things which we have just noted upon the preceding proposition are to be applied likewise to the ruler of a state. Moreover, it is quite plain that the ruler of a state can contribute more to the glory of the nation than a private citizen can.
§ 52. Of barbarous nations
§ 547, part 1, Jus Nat.
§§ 895, 896, part 2, Phil. Pract. Univ.
§ 687, part 2, Phil. Pract. Univ.
We call a nation barbarous, or in our native vernacular, ein barbarisches Volck [a barbarian people], which cares but little for intellectual virtues,
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consequently neglects the perfecting of the intellect. Therefore, since barbarian nations do not develop their minds by training, in determining their actions they follow the leadership of their natural inclinations and aversions, and their uncivilized usages depend for the most part on these.
§ 162, Log.
Even from the beginning those were called barbarians by the Greeks who used a less cultivated language, that is, other than Greek, and then by the Romans those were so called who did not speak Greek or Latin; but afterward the term was transferred from the speech and language to the method of living also and to the character of the usages. The perfection of speech and language depends upon the perfection of the intellect, consequently above all upon intellectual virtues, although it may happen that those may retain a rough and harsh pronunciation of words and an uncultivated speech, who prize the intellectual virtues and have cultivated manners. Therefore in our definition we do not depart from the received significance of the term, although we have retained in it the terminology usual in philosophy, so that the concept of a barbarous nation is resolved into the previous concepts, as ought to be the case in a system, lest it may lack the full light which it can and ought to have; for in definition one must use the terms previously explained or made clear from general usage in speaking. But those who think that a barbarism is introduced, when any cultivate and teach studies in any other language than the Latin, because the Romans called those barbarians who did not speak Latin or Greek, are very greatly mistaken; for did not both the Greeks and Romans transmit their learning and arts in their native tongue? It is one question whether the knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages is useful to the scholar, quite another whether or not it is wise that scholars should use some common language, and whether that ought to be Latin. This is not the place for us to say what seems best concerning either point. But this concept of the barbarous nation, which we have given, is quite fruitful, provided only one shall have mentally grasped those previous concepts which lead up to it, and provided one is strong in the art of proof; for from this are to be derived the things which are to be predicated of barbarous nations, that we may not judge erroneously
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concerning their characteristics, as for example, by confusing natural manners with virtues, or by attributing to virtue the absence of vices, which is due to ignorance, or by counting civilized manners as uncivilized, because they may be different from those commonly received among other non-barbarous nations. Nevertheless, it is not our plan to follow up those ideas here; it is enough to have awakened the attention of others.
§ 53. Of the cultured and civilized nation
§ 547, part 1, Jus Nat.
§ 52.
That is called a cultured nation which cultivates intellectual virtues, consequently desires to perfect the intellect, and therefore develops the mind by training. And that is called a civilized nation which has civilized manners or manners which conform to the standard of reason and politeness. We call it in our native vernacular, ein gesittetes Volck [a cultured people], just as with respect to their usages barbarous nations are called, ungesittete Völcker [uncultured peoples]. But since barbarous nations have uncivilized usages, therefore to a barbarous nation is opposed a nation cultured and civilized.
§ 888, part 1, Jus Nat., and § 769, Psych. Emp.
§ 583, part 1, Jus Nat.
§ 566, part 1, Jus Nat.
§ 570, part 1, Jus Nat.
§ 43.
If a cultured nation is assumed to cultivate the intellectual virtues without restriction, it will scarcely happen that it will not at the same time become civilized, since civilized customs develop from intellectual virtues, just as the uncivilized from the natural inclinations, unrestricted by reason. But there are indeed intellectual virtues also, which of themselves do not in the least correct morals and do not destroy barbarism. Hence it is not unusual that learned men exist, who have not undeservedly acquired fame of name, who are marred by bad and uncouth manners. Lofty genius and no ordinary shrewdness is required, if any one would excel in integral calculus and higher geometry. Therefore whoever does excel, has a name deservedly honoured. But to whatsoever extent at length integral calculus may be carried and to whatsoever height higher geometry, or the geometry of curves, may have been carried, nevertheless integral calculus and higher geometry do not refine the impulses even in the slightest degree, and consequently contribute nothing to the correction of manners. Nay more if any one uses up all his time in calculus alone
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and in the application of it to geometry, when he thinks that he excels in this study and surpasses others, ambition, which controls his affection, brings forth pride and disdain, with ignorance as a midwife, and finally arrogance and ambition, by which vices he is led astray to do those things which are a disgrace to himself and to his class, and when he associates with strangers, he very greatly retards the growth of the sciences. If besides he lives to himself alone, and avoids association with men whom charm and grace of manners recommend, he either has no manners or uncouth ones, by which he brings the science which he cultivates into contempt with those who are not able to pass judgement on it for itself. Scholars of this sort, who neglect the studies fitted to refine the impulses and find pleasure only in those which do not destroy barbarism, are rightly considered semi-barbarous and, when they surpass others in number, make the nation semi-barbarous.
§ 54. That nations ought to be cultured and civilized, not barbarous
§ 35.
§ 199, part 1, Jus Nat.
§ 53.
Nations ought to be cultured and civilized, not barbarous. For nations ought to perfect
