The Skull of Quadruped and Bipedal Vertebrates. Djillali Hadjouis

      1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1. Skull of a young present-day Asian elephant in left lateral view. Note the position of the orbits above the maxilla and not behind it (© Éditions Belin/Dominique Visset)Figure 1.2. Lower view of a mammoth skull (Mammuthus primigenius), found in the gravel of Bonneuil Port, showing the replacement of the jugal teeth (© Hadjouis)Figure 1.3. Replacement of jugal teeth in the mammoth. Premolars and first molars were expelled from the back to the front, keeping only the M3 in each half jaw (© Anthony)

      2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1. Horse skull viewed from the left. The basion-prosthion geometrical triangle translates the extension of the craniodental and craniospinal fields. The perpendicular line of the triangle passes through M3 (© Hadjouis)Figure 2.2. Diagrams showing the comparison of the average protoconic indices of the definitive superior jugal teeth of several horses from Europe and Africa (© Hadjouis). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/hadjouis/skull.zipFigure 2.3. Posture of the horse’s head and quadruped body. The Equidae are often used as an example to represent perfectly balanced posture and locomotion. The withers and the rump are located at the same height with a center of gravity positioned in the middle; the head is held high up by a verticalized neck that passes the withers by five cervical vertebrae (© Hadjouis and Le Bihan)Figure 2.4. Probable hybrid calvarium of a horse (Equus sp.) and mandible from above showing the symmetry of the paired dental and cranial parts (© Hadjouis)Figure 2.5. Inflammatory lesions involving osteoarthritis on a horse’s lumbar spine, caused by heavy service work during the 19th century in Arcueil (draught and/or ploughing). Note the intervertebral osteophysical formation (© Hadjouis)Figure 2.6. Inflammatory lesions involving osteoarthritis on the L4-L5 of horses, caused by heavy service work during the 19th century in Arcueil (draught and/or ploughing). Note the intervertebral osteophysical formation (© Hadjouis)Figure 2.7. Head and body quadruped posture of the African wild ass (© Hadjouis and Le Bihan)

      3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1. Frontal and 3/4 right views of a cranial portion of aurochs (Bos primigenius), with its horn cores from Aflou (Algeria) (© Hadjouis)Figure 3.2. Posture of the head and quadruped body of the ancient buffalo (Syncerus antiquus), 3/4 view (© Hadjouis and Le Bihan)Figure 3.3. Frontal view of a cranial portion of a fossil buffalo (Pelorovis howelli), with its horn cores from the Lower Pleistocene in El Kherba (Algeria) (© Sahnouni)Figure 3.4. Head and body quadruped posture of Howell’s buffalo (Pelorovis howelli), 3/4 view (© Hadjouis and Le Bihan)Figure 3.5. Head and quadruped body posture of the ancient buffalo subspecies (Syncerus antiquus complex). In the example of the buffalo, and the muskox, the center of gravity is placed at the front of the body, making withers higher than the rump, and the neck and head are positioned lower than the withers (© Hadjouis and Le Bihan)Figure 3.6. Front view of the ancient Algerian buffalo (Syncerus antiquus) from Djelfa showing the wingspan, orientation and curvature of the horn cores (from Pomel 1883)Figure 3.7. Front view of an ancient buffalo skull (Syncerus antiquus) from Algeria (© P. Thomas)Figure 3.8. Head posture and quadruped body of aurochs (Bos primigenius). Note the postural balance between the withers and the hindquarters, with the center of gravity positioned in the center of the body. The top of the head did not exceed the withers (according to Ghetie and Mateesco (1977) modified)Figure 3.9. Anterior limb of domestic cattle showing the effects of pulling during the Final Neolithic (large opening of the ante-brachio-carpal-metacarpal angle up to 196° and deviation toward the median axis of the bony rays of 162°) (from

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