and R. Bichler (eds.), Herodot und das Persische Weltreich – Herodotus and the Persian Empire. Classica et Orientalia 3. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp. 471–498.18 Koldewey, R. (1913). Das wieder erstehende Babylon: Fünfte, überarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage: Herausgegeben von Barthel Hrouda. München: C.H. Beck Verlag.
19 Koldewey, R. (1931). Die Königsburgen von Babylon: Die Südburg. Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs Verlag.
20 Kreppner, F.J. (forthcoming), Die Biographie des Roten Hauses von Tall Šēḫ Ḥamad/Dūr‐Katlimmu (Nordostsyrien) und die historische Entwicklung der altorientalischen Reiche in der ersten Hälfte des ersten Jahrtausends v. Chr.: Koinzidenzen und Inkoinzidenzen. In: S. Heinsch, W. Kuntner, and R. Rollinger (eds.), Befund und Historisierung. Dokumentation und ihre Interpretationsspielräume (Araxes I). Turnhout: Brepols.
21 Kuntner, W., Heinsch, S. (2013). Die babylonischen Tempel in der Zeit nach den Chaldäern. In K. Kaniuth et al. (eds.), Tempel im Alten Orient. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp. 219–262.
22 Lippolis, C., Monopoli, B., and Baggio, P. (2011). Babylon's urban layout and territory from above. Mesopotamia, XLVI, pp. 1–8.
23 Miglus, P. (forthcoming) Assyrien im Untergang: Das Jahr 614 und der archäologische Befund. In S. Heinsch, W. Kuntner, and R. Rollinger (eds.), Befund und Historisierung. Dokumentation und ihre Interpretationsspielräume (Araxes I). Turnhout: Brepols.
24 Oates, D., Reid, J.H. (1956). The burnt palace and the Nabu Temple: Nimrud excavations, 1955. Iraq, 18 (1), pp. 22–39.
25 Pedersén, O. (2011). Work on a digital model of Babylon using archaeological and textual evidence. Mesopotamia, XLVI, pp. 9–22.
26 Reade, J. (1986). A hoard of silver currency from Achaemenid Babylon. Iran, 24, pp. 79–89.
27 Seidl, U. (1999). Ein Monument Darius' I. aus Babylon. Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie, 89, pp. 101–114.
28 Taylor, R.E. et al. (2010). Alternative explanations for anomalous 14C ages of human skeletons associated with the 612 BCE destruction of Nineveh. Radiocarbon, 52 (2–3), pp. 372–382.
29 Ur, J. (2012). The present and future of archaeology in the Kurdistan region of Iraq. The American Academic Research Institute in Iraq Newsletter, 7 (1), pp. 20–23.
30 Wetzel, F. (1930). Die Stadtmauern von Babylon. Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs Verlag.
FURTHER READING
1 Boiy, T. (2004). Late Achaemenid and Hellenistic Babylon. Leuven: Peeters. Provides an accessible introduction to the topic.
2 Cellerino, A. (2004). La ceramica dal sondaggio di Shu‐Anna a Babilonia. Mesopotamia, XXXIX, pp. 93–167. Exhaustively discusses the Achaemenid pottery excavated by the Italian expedition in Babylon, offering a welcome addition to the pottery corpus presented in the Northern Akkad Project Reports.
3 De Meyer, L., Gasche, H. (1987–1996). Northern Akkad Project Reports, Volume 1–‘10. Ghent: University of Ghent. Reports collect the most valuable archeological work done recently on Achaemenid Babylonia and offer a sound methodological approach to the research of this period.
4 Hausleiter, A. (2010). Neuassyrische Keramik im Kerngebiet Assyriens: Chronologie und Formen. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz and Anastasio, S. (2010). Atlas of the Assyrian pottery of the Iron Age. Turnhout: Brepols. Monographies are equivalent standard works on Neo‐/Late‐/Post‐Assyrian pottery and discuss the complex periodization terminology from different but nevertheless complementary points of view.
5 Heller, A. (2010). Das Babylonien der Spätzeit (7.‐4. Jh.) in den klassischen und keilschriftlichen Quellen. Oikumene: Studien zur Antiken Weltgeschichte 7. Berlin: Verlag Antike. Currently the most comprehensive introduction to the history and archeology of the Late Babylonian period.
6 Jursa, M. (2005). Neo‐Babylonian Legal and Administrative Documents: Typology, Contents and Archives. Münster: Ugarit‐Verlag. Enumerates and briefly comments on all archives presently known from Babylonia from the Neo‐ and Late‐Babylonian times, arranged according to finding place and family name.
NOTES
1 1 As defined by the patterns manifested in the capital cities of the Achaemenid Empire in Susiana and Persis.
2 2 See in regard to the problem of the long runtime of this pavement Heinsch and Kuntner (2011: 521–522).
3 3 For further references about Achaemenid column capitals and bases in Babylonia see Haerinck (1997: 30).
4 4 The term is used in accordance with Assyriological practices and spans the period of time from the Late Assyrian to Seleucid‐Parthian periods.
5 5 Bergamini’s reasoning concentrates entirely on the fluviatile sediments found to overlay the river walls south of the Sergami alongside the Euphrates riverbed where floods can naturally be expected to have happened periodically. This fact does not prove, however, that the Euphrates flowed at this point back from the city area in its original riverbed west of Kasr. The quoted work about recent excavations by Iraqi archaeologists does not confirm Bergamini’s reconstruction since it reports that the sand‐and‐earth layers were found below the mudbrick walls.
CHAPTER 18 Syria
Astrid Nunn
Introduction
When the Levant became Achaemenid in the year 539 BCE, it had already been part of a large political entity, the Late Babylonian Empire with her capital in distant Babylon. Following the reorganization under Darius I, an area coinciding approximately with the present‐day states of Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Cyprus, and Jordan became the Fifth Satrapy “abar Nahar” (in Aramaic). This satrapy with the exception of Cyprus will be the subject of this chapter. The Lebanese and north Israeli coast comprises the core region of ancient Phoenicia.
The archeological remains consist of architecture, ceramic, clay figurines, seals, sculpture, metal implements, and coins. The majority of this material and the most spectacular one was excavated on the coastal strip. The inland was less populated and is therefore today poorer in archeological remains.
City Layout and Architecture
The Cities and the Ports
In spite of the Achaemenid policy of centralization, some of the Phoenician cities retained a local dynasty and Samaria and Judea were partially ruled by local governors. The Phoenician cities flourished because of their key position between East and West. But unfortunately, due to either the large‐scale building activities during the Hellenistic period or the fact that most coastal cities (Sidon, Tyre, Gaza) are still inhabited, it is difficult today to find large Achaemenid areas and therefore to reconstruct a city plan of this time in the Levant. Nonetheless,
