similar sounding names; these might be called tautological variations. Different versions of the same legend will be found in different localities; these are geographical variations. Attempts have been made to compare the Chinese symbolism with that of other countries, but, apart from the motifs imported with Indian Buddhism, most of the other fancied resemblances are probably due to mere coincidences on account of similar manners and customs, chiefly owing to the nature worship which forms the basis of most religions, and to the fact that the first necessity of all primitive peoples is to draw up a general code of behaviour, which is calculated to ensure the essential health and happiness of the tribe, ie., the early folklore was animistic and therapeutic in its application to the human requirements of the times. The mere fact that corresponding legends exist in countries so far apart as China, Africa, and Iceland, is in itself no conclusive argument of early communication or connection between their respective inhabitants.
“The Chinese pantheon has gradually become so multitudinous that there is scarcely a being or thing which is not, or has not been at some time or other, propitiated and worshipped.”1 Their religious observances at present are chiefly a blend of Confucianism (儒), Taoism (道), Buddhism (釋), and Lamaism (啊 嘛 教)—a modified form of Buddhism. “This is borne out by the fact that in every Chinese funeral procession, such as is so frequently seen in a large town of China, no matter how long or short the procession may be, there are always bands of Buddhist and Taoist priests employed to say prayers on behalf of the deceased, and these priests are employed, not by Buddhists or Taoists, but by Confucianists.”2 The Chinese themselves admit that the three religions are but one religion (三 教 一 教). Mahommedanism (囘 囘 教) also occurs, but is confined to the south-western and north-western provinces. In this faith, also, the process of absorption into the national potpourri of beliefs is making way, and, since the suppression of the Panthay rebellion in 1837, when 30,000 Mahommedans were massacred, there has been a gradual decline in the number of the followers of the Prophet.
The underlying idea of Confucianism is essentially a reverence for the ruler, the family, and the social relationships, the cult observed by the “superior man.” It is quite distinct, strictly speaking, from the mythology of Taoism with its numerous divinities to health, wealth, stars, rivers, mountains, etc.“All Chinese life is permeated with Taoist fancy; the symbolism of the Chinese depends upon it; Chinese poetry is full of it; all Chinese legend and folklore teems with it. . . . The Buddhist religion had already become a complicated system of ritual and idol worship before it reached China. It was already a mixture of many things, and in China it had little difficulty in mingling into its structure many more.”3 It is difficult to say to what degree the mentality of the Chinese has been saturated and fertilized by Buddhist idealism, but there are everywhere signs of what Buddhism has been to China in the past. The careful observer may discern Buddhist thoughts in the ornamental stonework of an arch-way, the etchings on a metal tobacco pipe, in the countless ideographs of the long vistas of shop-signs, in the reliefs and designs on bronze utensils and chinaware, in the conventional patterns employed for the decoration of silk embroideries and carpets, in pictures and paper charms on house-doors, etc. There are reflections or echoes of Buddhist teachings in the composition of a garden, or the names of certain fruits and flowers. The life and character of the people show signs of Buddhist influences, the speech of the Chinese is interspersed with Buddhist utterances, while their literature and drama abound with Buddhist ideas and expressions.
It has therefore been considered necessary to introduce descriptions of many objects of religious worship into this work, and notices have been given of the principal Buddhist and Taoist deities, together with articles on Confucius and other celebrities. Birth, marriage, and death have also been treated to show the symbolic nature of Chinese ceremonial and its inseparable connection with religious elements. Animals and birds, both mythical and natural, trees, flowers, coins, weapons, etc., have also been examined from an emblematic point of view. The collected material has been arranged alphabetically, with cross references to other relevant articles.
The illustrations have all been drawn for me by various Chinese artists. I have to acknowledge my indebtedness to the following designs, which have been copied or adapted for the purposes of this publication:
From Peking, by ALPH. FAVIER. “Toy pedlar,” “Lama priest attired for worship,”“Swords” (adapted),“Lama devil dancers’ masks,”“Dice and playing-cards,” “House in process of construction,” “Chinese house.” From History of Chinese Pictorial Art, by PROFESSOR H. A. GILES. “A Hundred Colts” (two plates). From The Middle Kingdom, by S. WELLS WILLIAMS.“Ancient anatomical chart,”“P‘an Ku Chi chiselling out the universe” (adapted). From Chinese Music, by J. A. VAN AALST.“Sonorous Stone,” etc. (adapted). From Lamaism, by L. A. WADDELL.“Insignia and weapons of the Lama Gods” (adapted). From Myths and Legends of China, by E. T. C. WERNER. “The money tree.” From Chinese Porcelain, by
W. G. GULLAND. “Diaper patterns” (adapted), “The eight ordinary symbols,” “The eight Buddhist symbols.” From The Mentor, 1st March 1916,“Old Chinese temple rug,”“A plate of willow ware.”
A certain portion of literature, especially books of reference, must always resemble the rambler rose, which has to climb up some protecting wall, rather than the fruit tree, which is supported only by its own firm trunk. Without relying considerably on the recognised authorities and specialists of sinology it would be impossible for any one individual to produce a sufficiently comprehensive record in the brief space of his own life-time. I have accordingly consulted a number of Chinese classical productions, together with the volumes on the shelves of the Chinese Customs Reference Library, and the Libraries of the Peking, Shanghai, Tientsin, and Hong Kong Clubs, as well as the Royal Asiatic Society, etc., in my attempts to bring together the necessary materials relative to the subject in hand. I have been very careful to acknowledge all references to authors from whose works I have actually quoted, and I am deeply indebted to these valuable sources of information. It is possible, however, that I may have inadvertently omitted to specify chapter and verse in a few isolated cases, and, where this is so, I take the opportunity to offer my apologies.
The main object I have kept in view has been to collect, amplify, and arrange some authentic information concerning the fundamental symbolism, in the hope that it may aid in the development of a finer appreciation of the workings of the Chinese mentality and understanding of the people. Moreover, it should also provide artists, designers of costumes and upholsteries, etc., collectors of oriental curios (chinaware, bronzes, rugs, ivory, pictures, and other objets d’art), as well as advertisers of imports and exports, with suggestive ideas of some assistance in the furtherance of their respective interests, while students of Chinese will also be enabled to trace out the significant influence of symbolism on the language and literature of the country.
In conclusion I may say that I do not claim that this volume is an exhaustive encyclopaedia. It is merely to be regarded as a practical handbook of the science of Chinese symbolism as based on the early folklore, with illustrations of typical forms; and, if it serves to any extent as a useful guide, I shall be amply compensated for the labour involved.
C. A. S. WILLIAMS
Customs College,
Peiping, 1st OCTOBER, 1932.
Footnotes
1 Werner: Myths and Legends of China, Ch. IV, p. 93.
2 Li Ung Bing: Geography of China, 1915, pp. 15–16.
3 Clennell: The Historical Development of Religion in China, pp. 78, 106–7.
CHINESE SYMBOLISM
AND
ART MOTIFS
Agriculture
(耕種)
