aesthetic concepts formulated by these newly adopted sects, ingrained in the Oriental mind, were naturally projected into the art forms. For example, the principle that all living things are endowed with spirit (and are therefore fit subjects for artistic portrayal) is part of the Buddhist philosophy of the transmigration of souls. The insignificance and transience of man along with the grandeur and infiniteness of nature similarly reflects Buddhist thought. The religious aspects toward nature are commonly depicted, represented often by a tiny insignificant human figure portrayed against awe-inspiring large rocky landscapes or a small hut tucked away in large rising mountain ranges.
The Japanese absorbed not only Buddhist philosophy but also the associated iconography, mythology, and symbolism. All of these factors became transformed into Japanese thinking and customs and of course secondarily into art expression. A considerable part of the subject matter of Oriental art centers about religion. This includes portrayal of the various gods themselves as well as portrayal of the various legendary (mythological) stories about them. Similarly represented, especially to the delight of the imaginative and expressive Japanese artisan, are Buddhist concepts of hell with its fierce demonology. This subject matter represented direct portrayal of Buddhist religion, but of greater significance are the offshoots of Buddhist art and subject matter representing aesthetic and philosophical concepts engendered by Buddhism. An example already noted is the Buddhist concept of nature and its subjects. Zen Buddhism stressed the importance of meditation in the presence of nature, out of which evolved the typical Japanese garden. Similarly the art of the tea ceremony, the tokonoma, and the symbolic art of flower arrangement were offshoots of Zen Buddhism. The tea ceremony in turn led to the development of tea utensils, including lacquer ware, metal ware, and pottery. The basic simplicity of Zen philosophy was reflected in the concepts of Zen art, and complicated iconography and religious sculpture was rejected by Zen Buddhism, which had become the official religion of the court. Chinese monochrome brush-stroke painting, applying to Zen philosophy, resulted in simple artistic paintings, expressing the painter's meditative enlightenment concerning the inner essence of various aspects of nature. This simple economy and strength of stroke and the elimination of ornamental detail to express the "inner truth" of the subject rather than photographic accuracy are still considered by the Oriental connoisseur as the quintessence of art in its purest form. This principle applied as well to the pottery and lacquer ware of the Zen tea ceremony. The pottery, such as Raku ware, was purposely simple, crude, and muted. Similarly, lacquer trays and tea jars were of the simplest effective designs done in subtle, soft, muted tones. This spirit was reflected in other lacquer articles made during these times, such as incense boxes.
With the complete popularization of the arts by the Edo period, portrayal of religious subjects was replaced to a great degree by portrayal of secular subjects; yet the aesthetic artistic principles based on Buddhist philosophy remained in these purely Japanese artistic creations. It is only with a basic knowledge of these concepts, along with an understanding of the previously mentioned principles of Oriental art, that true appreciation and critical evaluation of Japanese art can be achieved.
Influences of the Feudal System
The Japanese feudal system provided an almost ideal means for a development of the fine arts in which commercialism played absolutely no part. Briefly, the feudal system in Japan consisted of a balance of power, both economic and military, between groups of clans,. The stress upon hereditary rights and ancestor worship not only perpetuated powerful families or clans in an economic and political sense but also was responsible for the development of the artisan class and long family lines of lacquer artists. Japan was ruled basically by four powerful factions:
1) the imperial household, including the emperor and the court nobility: descendants of the founders of the Yamato Province of the 7th century b.c.
2) the military government (bakufu or shogunate) headed by the shogun, or generalissimo, first established in Kamakura in A.D. 1192.
3) the local shugo (high constables), who ruled through the shogunate the local provinces or fiefs (kuni). (The local military leaders, or daimyo, were descendants of the shugo and developed independent power by the 15th century a.d.)
4) the various economically and militarily powerful Buddhist sects, which hired their own mercenaries.
Historically, the Japanese feudal system evolved as follows: Japan was initially inhabited by numerous clans which ultimately came under the military control of one clan whose authority was centered in Yamato in the 7th century b.c., thus instituting the first emperor and the beginnings of the imperial household. By 71 b.c. the ruling emperor had allocated fiefs or provinces (kuni) to 77 of his children, marking the beginning of feudal land distribution in Japan. Shintoism, the religion of Japan at this time, basically professed that everything in nature was equally divine (kami) and that the imperial family was an intermediary between the spirits and the people. By the 7th century A.D. Japan was divided into provinces which were owned by different clans. During this period Buddhism was introduced. The imperial capital was moved to Nara in 710 and to Heian-kyo in 794. The local militarily powerful clans, such as the Soga and subsequently the Fujiwara family, often directly or indirectly controlled the imperial family. Meanwhile, newly introduced Buddhist sects also gained economic, political, and military power by hiring mercenaries. Much of the land was owned through a system of absentee landlords who were descendants of the court nobility. In order to protect their property, mercenaries were hired, so that by the 11th century there arose the military class (bushi), War between the powerful clans broke out, the final conflict occurring between the Taira or Heike and the Minamoto or Genji. The latter ultimately gained ascendancy in 1185 and initiated the Kamakura period (1185-1392), the military government being set up in Kamakura. The head of this military government was the shogun, or generalissimo, and thus was established the bakufu, or shogunate government. The shogun appointed members of his own clan to rule the local provinces. These were known as shugo (high constables), although the tight of administration was theoretically still in the hands of the court-appointed governors.
The Muromachi or Ashikaga period (1392-1573) was marked by continued strife between the emperor and such powerful clans as the Ashikaga. Meanwhile the shugo increased their local military power and became autonomous beyond the control of the shogunate or the imperial house. They became known as daimyo (dai, great; myo, name). Art now continued to flourish under the patronage of the church, the court, the shogunate, and the local daimyo along with the stimulus of the newly introduced Zen culture.
It would seem almost paradoxical that a warlike feudal system dominated by the military class should be conducive to the fostering of art. This was true, however, for three basic reasons: military, economic, and love of art. The Japanese admiration of art and their keen aesthetic sense, associated with their love of nature, has already been seen to arise out of their religion and their adoption of the already highly developed art forms of their neighbors, China and Korea.
The initial patrons of the fine arts, including music, poetry, and calligraphy, were the nobility and the imperial court. As early as the Heian period the wealthy Kyoto nobility contented themselves with the refinements of all forms of art and aestheticism as aptly described in the Genji Monogatari and the Makura no Soshi. The highly artistic, delicate, almost effeminate tastes of the nobility were naturally reflected in the art commissioned by them. The wealth of the nobility was made possible by the feudal system, under which members of imperial lineage (nobility) were given hereditary land grants as far back as the 4th century A.D. and taxes Were collected from the farming class who inhabited these fiefs. The power of the nobility was sustained throughout the centuries through the religious concept (Shintoism) of the divine origin of the imperial family. Even when stripped of political and military power, the nobility contented themselves with the pleasures of artistic enjoyment and endeavors.
The Buddhist church was also a great patron of the arts, mainly for the embellishment of its temples. Many of the priests were learned men who were fully conversant with the arts and often were artists themselves. Some of the priests brought into Japan the arts of China and Korea. The feudal system also permitted
