Chinese and Buddhist influences which gradually gave way to typical Japanese modifications in response to indigenous Japanese culture and aestheticism. We have also noted the various factors responsible for the ultimate development of this culture and aestheticism. Of what, then, when broken down, does this typical Japanese art consist? Japanese art may be broken down into three main categories: 1) general aesthetic concepts of art and art motifs, 2) treatment of subject matter or pictorial design, and 3) treatment of decoration, surface area and backgrounds.
The way in which Japanese artisans portray these three factors comprises the inner core of their unique art. We have already discussed the evolution of and influences upon Japanese aesthetic principles of art. We can now analyze the basic Japanese treatment of specific subject matter.
Subject Matter: General Principles
Generally speaking, subject matter in lacquer art is treated in an overall Chinese or Oriental fashion. This includes the traditional method of handling perspective in the two-dimensional form and the use of typical Oriental subjects, such as landscapes, details of nature, birds, animals, and gods. Yet there evolved tremendous changes throughout the centuries, ultimately creating a distinctly unique Japanese flavor which reached its sublime quintessence by the 18th century, with which period we are primarily concerned. We have already seen how the Japanese lacquerer handled perspective, both subtly with the use of simple flat lacquer and more sculpturally with the use of raised lacquer and encrustations. The second general distinction of lacquer art which deviated from traditional ink-stroke painting was the use of color. Color, as practiced in typical sumie painting according to the subdued aesthetic principles of Zen art, is of secondary importance, if to be used at all. Color in black-and-white, as in Chinese painting, is obtained by the amount of pressure of the brush stroke and by the "wash"—the more diluted the ink, the lighter the tone. Thus an endless variety of tones (washes) could be obtained, from a deep powerful black to a faint, delicate, hazy gray-white. In such a way both strength and subtlety could be achieved, including beautiful portrayals of mist, haze, and other vagaries of nature, so dear to the heart of the Japanese.
Such washes were also, as previously noted, used to depict perspective. This black-and-white painting was only occasionally imitated by the lacquer artist or even the metal artist. In lacquer the design consisted of shadings of black lacquer against a gold of silver background. Toyo was famous for this style of decoration (Figs. 22, 209). The metal artist also occasionally imitated this technique, using the black alloy shakudo against a gray background of the alloy known as shibuichi. With the popularization of the arts in the Edo period, the more striking use of color became a predominating motif in the arts as exemplified by the detailed naturalistic ukiyo-e school. In general, lacquer art always stressed color effects to varying degrees. While it has been stated that pure lacquer colors could not be obtained because of the inherent amber tone of clear lacquer, the real reason is that the Japanese lacquer artist preferred soft, muted colors and tones to sharp "pure" colors, as much as the metal artist preferred various subdued alloys and "picklings" to sharp, shiny pure copper and silver. Thus in lacquer art greens are muted, revealing an olive tint; blues are light and soft, often a muted grayish color; and reds also are toned down or brick-colored. Many gradations of tones were used, so that a subtle green would readily blend with a delicate blue tone. In later lacquer works, such as those of the Somada school, special iridescent blue-green mother-of-pearl was used. Occasionally gold leaf was put under the mother-of-pearl to give a golden hue, a similar color effect being used for inlaid tortoise shell. In general, it is in more modern works that colors have become more pure, sharp, and harsh. The one exception to the use of pure color is roiro or the highly prized, highly polished, rich gleaming black lacquer used as a ground. Figure 6 shows an inro revealing very unusual colors rarely seen in Japanese lacquer, including a rich dark olive-green ground and rarely used yellow lacquer along with shades of fairly pure reds.
Contrasting with the more decorative colorful aspects of Japanese lacquer are a group of subtle lacquer techniques which appeal to the Japanese taste and ultimately to the Western connoisseur. Such simple subdued taste was in keeping with the Zen tea ceremony. This consists of the use of fine simple black designs very slightly raised on a rich black background, such as may be seen by the nature lover at night. Occasionally the design is done in a dull black finish on the black glossy ground. Rarely the black design itself is etched or slightly below the ground surface. At times the design imitates an old Chinese inkstick with "cracks" in the background surface. Variations of this technique use dark tones of brown or combinations of dark brown and black. It is almost impossible to photograph such specimens of art, for the design can often only be visualized by tilting the lacquered object so that the light strikes it indirectly (Figs. 28,147).
Irregularity and asymmetry of subject matter presentation is much more distinctly Japanese. While the Chinese may present the natural irregularity of nature by a tree with asymmetrical branches, the Japanese will go much further and present an aesthetically pleasing asymmetrical picture in regard to grouping all of the subject matter involved. The hardest part of the Japanese artisan's pictorial effect is often considered to be the "blank space." At times the Japanese artist definitely exaggerated the asymmetry so that almost an entire scene may be depicted in a corner of a lacquer painting (Figs. 25, 29). Japanese artistic effects of foreshortening and suggestion have already been noted.
Pictorial Subject Matter: Nature
Nature itself is handled with less awesome and more affectionate care than in comparable Chinese representations. Landscapes are less intense and foreboding, softer and more gentle, an effect due not only to the sympathetic daily existence of the Japanese in the midst of nature but also to their gentler natural landscapes. Japanese landscapes are not only less foreboding, but the Japanese handling of every facet of nature is keener, for it is portrayed in a more tender, realistic, often humorous, and yet artistic fashion. The Japanese artist is particularly fond of depicting not only the effect of the different seasons on natural vegetation—such as leaves gently bending in the wind and the nuances of autumnal tints—but also the subtle modifications and effects of such ethereal aspects of nature as wind, rain, mist, haze, and moonlight. A favorite picture is that of a tiny leaf or two wafting downward in the moonlight. As mentioned, a night effect is quite imaginatively obtained on lacquer ware by using "black on black." The Japanese artisan goes so far as to observe and depict the different types of rain. Thus spring rain is depicted by thin slightly opaque lines and winter rain by heavy, closely placed, very opaque lines falling at different angles. Waves are similarly represented differently according to the different seasons. Thus there are peacefully long spring waves, rippling summer waves, rougher autumn waves, and choppy winter waves. Even the directions of the wind peculiar to each season were considered. In general, however, the Japanese artist inherited and retained many of the Chinese conventionalized methods of portraying waves and clouds. An exception is the artistic semiconventionalized cloudlike appearance of nashiji used for background effect (see mura nashiji, page 113). Wind is revealed by bending of blades of grass or of a bird helplessly drifting with sideward motion against a strong breeze. Even the direction of the wind may be ingeniously represented. The Chinese had already carefully noted the natural erosion of their massive rocks and landscapes. They were accurately portrayed by numerous specific brush strokes, such as "axe marks," which were quite effective and powerful. Such landscapes are now existent in Japan through the Chinese Yuan teaching of painting, which had some effect on the Japanese artisan, including the lacquerers of the Muromachi period (1392-1573).
Astute observation is noted in the Japanese portrayal of every aspect of nature: its minerals, vegetables, insects, and animals. As we have previously noted, the appearance and physical texture, and grain of natural objects are keenly observed and artistically copied in the various handicrafts, being portrayed either as part of the ornamental design or as the background. Figure 30 shows a delicate sprig of plum blossoms contrasted against a background of rough-textured lacquer imitating in a semirealistic way the bark of a tree. The deleterious effects of time and the seasons on nature are also a favorite Japanese theme. A rotting plant or vegetable being eaten by parasitic insects and the natural decay and color
