the shite (shite-zure) wear masks. The most famous mask carvers stem from this time (14th-17th centuries). The essence of the Noh play is to bring out a sense of elegance, beauty, and simplicity as specifically expressed rhythmically and musically in the dances. This is effected through a minimum of stylized movement and lack of facial expression. The plots are simple and concern themselves with mythology, folk tales, and war tales. In general the Japanese drama expresses life and emotion artistically through symbolism and suggestion in a simple lofty aesthetic manner so characteristic of Japanese art in general, whether it be painting, the tea ceremony, or flower arrangement. The allusions in the drama to poetry, literature, mythology, and Shinto and Buddhist ideas again typify the close relationship of the various art forms among themselves and also to folklore, symbolism, and native religion in regard to subject matter.
Japanese music, like the other art forms, is not isolated but is also related to religious, dramatic, or festival occasions. Japanese festivals again reflect a mixture of folklore, symbolism, religion, and love of nature and various art forms. All of the festivals purposely fall on an odd day of an odd month, since odd numbers are "positive," lucky, and reflect the male principle. Along with each festival there are associated symbolic flowers. Similarly, the tokonoma is decorated not only according to the season but also according to the festivals. The Girls' Festival, for example, is celebrated on the third day of the third month and is associated with the peach blossom (a symbol of longevity). An appropriate painting for the tokonoma is one of kamibina, or paper dolls. The women wear festive clothing, and the girls take out their dolls for display. Appropriate gifts to the girls are dolls which are essentially works of art rather than mere playthings and are often family heirlooms. Similarly, the New Year is celebrated with an appropriate picture, such as that of Fukurokuju, a god of good luck. The houses are adorned with evergreens. To the tight and left of the entrance to the house are placed red- and black-stemmed pines representing the female and male principles, together indicating happy marriage. Near the entrance is also placed a straw rope which is divided into specific odd numbers of strands dividing the pure from the impure. From the rope are suspended other symbolic objects. A painting of the takarabune, or treasure ship (Fig. 25), is placed under the pillow to bring happiness for the coming year. At New Year's actors perform religious dances and pantomimes, strolling artists draw, and wandering ballad singers appear.
We have seen to a certain extent how the various art forms pervade every aspect of Japanese life and customs. We have seen this in the Japanese love of nature, their early school training, their flower and garden arrangements, their architecture and tokonoma, their tea ceremony, their poetry, music and drama, and their festivals. Japanese art objects and art forms are basically utilitarian or related to other aspects of their culture, rather than an isolated art in themselves. This applies to the handicrafts that specifically combine utility and art. Even paintings are done to reflect religious and spiritual qualities rather than to be appreciated mainly for their face value. Conversely, utilitarian objects are usually in themselves works of art. Thus even so minor an object as a penny fan or inexpensive writing paper is made tastefully and artistically. Each Japanese home has its tokonoma with its art objects commensurate with the economic status of its members. This also applies to the tea-ceremony objects. Such art objects are highly treasured and tastefully displayed a few at a time, the remainder being carefully stored away in fine silk bags and in turn in a storage box. This box is often carefully made and signed by the artist, thus providing as well a document of authenticity. Art objects are displayed also to the taste of invited guests, the best objects being brought out for the most honored guests. This is not a sign of ostentation but of true appreciation by the household and by the guests as well. This close observation of works of art is in part responsible for the extreme detail found in most Japanese art objects. The objects are decorated and carved equally carefully from all sides, including the bottom surfaces, since their quality depends on their being beautiful from no matter what aspect they are studied. This applies even to the drama, where the pose of the actors must look equally artistic from all directions. The feel of the art object is of equal importance, such as the rough texture of Raku ware, the smooth glossy texture of lacquer ware, and the rounded soft oval feel of a good old netsuke. In general, Japanese art objects are pleasing from a distance as well as upon minute scrutiny. The minuteness of many works, whether it be painting, metal work, lacquer, or sculpture, is often undiscernible until a strong hand lens is used. It is only at this time that the technical finesse of the artist can be fully appreciated. The details of brush stroke, the minuteness of chisel marks and metallic inlays, the hairline quality of chinkin-bori can only then be truly appreciated. Yet a good artist does not satisfy himself with pure technical detail at the expense of artistic values, as was commonly done in the late Edo period. The simplicity of design, the minimal strokes used to achieve the desired effect are of primary importance. The canons of art should be adhered to with the utmost simplicity and yet effective aesthetic taste.
The Japanese custom of exchange of gifts was already established under the first Tokugawa shogun, Ieyasu. Japanese gifts are usually works of art and must be appropriate to the occasion. Thus, when a male child is born, the proper present to the family is a carp kakemono, the carp representing the epitome of perseverance and military spirit. Similarly when a female child is born a kamibina (paper doll) painting is presented. As a wedding gift, a painting of male and female mandarin ducks, symbolic of conjugal fidelity, is appropriate. As previously mentioned, gifts of lacquer ware were happily accepted in lieu of land grants as rewards for meritorious deeds for the government.
Japanese clothing also reflects Japan's decorative textile art. Such clothing varies according to the season. Valuable works of art are stored in precious brocades. Even the Japanese meal is aesthetically presented. Food is served in artistic lacquered and pottery cups and dishes placed on fine lacquered trays. The food is artistically arranged so as to be pleasing to the eye as well as to satisfy the appetite.
In summary, then, the Japanese culture is pervaded with aestheticism and the home with artistic utilitarian objects. To this very day a high percentage of luxury money is spent on items of art. A specific example of the close interrelationship between Japanese culture, mythology, symbolism, and art in everyday living is reflected in the carp. This fresh-water fish (koi), according to Chinese mythology, in the third month of each year (note the odd-numbered month) ascends the Yellow River. It fights its way up the cataracts (five gates) and finally leaps the Dragon Gate, which, if it can pass it, will transform the carp into a dragon. The symbolic association of the carp is therefore that of perseverance, the conquering of obstacles, and military spirit. This symbolic representation is introduced into Japanese life in many ways: to pass the state examinations is known as "leaping the Dragon Gate." At the Boys' Festival, celebrated on the fifth day of the fifth month (note positive, odd, or male numbers), it is customary to hang carp flags or carp-shaped balloons attached to bamboo rods and lines over every housetop to encourage its boys to rise to fame and fortune. When a male child is born a proper present to the family is a carp kakemono. The carp is also used at ceremonial banquets and cut up alive for sashimi. The fish is placed alive in a vessel during the meal, and then the carver passes the flat side of the knife blade over the body of the fish, which becomes motionless and submits to being sliced to the backbone. The carp in Japanese mythology is associated with such Japanese deities as the sennin Kinko, the household god Ebisu, and the priest Kensu. Kinko was a Chinese recluse who spent his life (twelve centuries) painting fish. He was led by a fish through the river world, and he returned riding on the back of a carp in view of his disciples. The smiling old bearded priest Kinko riding on the back of a carp is a favorite Japanese art motif. Another favorite subject of Japanese art depicts the carp struggling upstream (Figs. 26, 27). We see here that the Japanese gods themselves represented basically the idealistic and aesthetic principles of the life of the Japanese people. Thus the close association of the gods with nature, their love of artistic and meditative pursuits, their adherence to religious and Confucian philosophy, their gentleness and individual personalities, and even gentle humor, reflect the basic Japanese mind, which in turn created its own mythology and folklore, in its own "mind's eye."
With a comprehensive knowledge of all of the factors influencing Japanese art we can now outline what may be considered as the final evolution of its art motifs, both pictorial and ornamental. We have already noted
