a broader sense special designs of the pictorial element itself were done in order to obtain a decorative effect. These consisted of arabesques and scroll designs of flowers, plant life, birds, and even animals. In their simplest form these designs were done as circular powderings. Heraldic crests of infinite variety were commonly used as decorative powderings and often represented the crest of the noble family for whom the lacquered object was made. In a still broader sense even an entire tree—for example, a pine sapling—was represented in a decorative, slightly conventionalized manner. In general, however, the Japanese lacquer artist preferred to limit conventionalized patterns purely as a decorative adjunct to the more individual aesthetic pictorial element, in contrast to the Chinese lacquer artisan, in whose work the entire surface area was more often than not composed of stylized conventionalized and geometric patterns.
In general the varied decorative effects that the Japanese artisan obtained were achieved through the numerous materials and multiple techniques that had been developed within each field of art. The final effect was a combination of the aesthetic decorative ingenuity of the artist using the numerous techniques at hand. Specifically in lacquer ware the artist had at his disposal all gradations of colored lacquer, various sizes of metallic powders and cut foil, from a fine powder to large heavy sheets, ivory, coral, mother-of-pearl and various metals and alloys for encrustation. These and many more techniques from completely flat to highly raised lacquer work could be used in an infinite number of combinations to achieve the ultimate desired pictorial and decorative effect. Under such circumstances it is no small wonder that the artisan by the late Edo period tended to overdo the ornamentation producing ostentatious, gaudy, detailed decoration at the expense of simple, strong, aesthetic pictorial effects.
Of considerable importance in the development of Japanese decorative effects was the stress placed on background. This does not involve the various powderings and designs which were often used as decorations on the backgrounds. More specifically it consists of the groundwork upon which the decorative and pictorial elements were applied. Such backgrounds, known technically as the "ground," received as much attention as the pictorial element itself. These grounds often involved special techniques including the artistic portrayal of special "textures." Many times the backgrounds were prepared by special artists, both in lacquer and in the metal arts. There were even special artists who devoted themselves to preparing even so specific a metal background as nanako (tiny circular pebbles). Similarly in lacquer ware, the background may be of a natural wood grain, seen especially in the works of Ritsuo, or it may consist of a rich velvety black lacquer, occasionally prepared by a special group of artisans. This black lacquer may be enhanced by artistic dusting of metallic powders (nashiji). Quite often the lacquer ground may be made to simulate the bark of a tree, a rough stone surface, or the grain of natural wood or leather. "Rough" iron and "crude" pottery were so perfectly imitated in lacquer as to defy identification of the material unless inspected by handling (Fig. 5). Objects such as Japanese dolls were similarly so cleverly made of porcelain, wood, or papier-mache as to defy visual identification of their actual material. Even wood was carved to simulate a more "woody" appearance by purposely accentuating the grain and carving out defects and knotholes. Mokume was a technique used by both lacquer and metal artists in which the grain of wood was artistically simulated. Such background techniques imitating texture and natural simple crude products of nature were highly esteemed by all the handicraft artists. In a similar fashion the metal artist attained background effects by carefully engraving, hammering, and chiseling as seen in the various types of nanako and ishime (see metal techniques). By such methods highly artistic background effects simulating stone surfaces, the skin of a toad, falling drops of rain, etc., were carried out. Furthermore, the use of copper, gold, and silver in metalwork (and as encrustation for lacquer ware) was further developed technically into the use of various alloys, and the patina of the alloys themselves was altered for artistic effects by boiling them in chemical baths. The result of these innovations was the magnificent black and gray patinas of such alloys as shakudo and shibuichi, which were used primarily for background color effect as well as for adding variety to the pictorial element. As noted before, the use of pure shiny silver, gold, or copper for either the background or pictorial design was considered as vulgar taste. This was another reason for altering the appearance of the metals.
In summary, all forms of Japanese art, and in fact everyday Japanese living and culture itself, consist of a complicated web of reciprocating influences. Nature, art, religion, mythology, culture, symbolism, aesthetics, and home life are not isolated, independently working factors but are completely interrelated. A masterpiece of painting or handicraft is not simply a work of art to be placed in a museum but the symbolic representation of the artist's inner religious and aesthetic feelings toward his subject matter. In turn, we have seen how the artist's concepts were basically formulated by the above-mentioned interrelationships forming the background of Japanese aestheticism. Thus to the untrained eye, a simple picture of a stalk of bamboo merely represents an artist's sketch of one small aspect of nature. This is furthest from the truth, and such lack of understanding almost totally destroys the aesthetic value of the picture beyond its decorative effect. The bamboo, typifying constancy and upright conduct, is to the Japanese a paragon. Because the bamboo stalk grows close to the parent stem it is considered an emblem of family loyalty. The bamboo permeates every aspect of Japanese life. It is used in housing, for various utensils, as a food, and even as a medicine. To the Oriental eye, the bamboo is represented in spring with its leaves spread out joyously, or in rainy weather hanging down despondently, or wildly crossing its stems in windy weather. Symbolically the bamboo also represents longevity, constancy, and upright virtue. This symbolism is expressed in the upright conventional way of drawing bamboo and bamboo leaves. Symbolism is further reflected as far as minute specific rules for drawing every detail of the bamboo. Such details not only represent what is considered most appropriate artistically but also include symbolic strokes of calligraphy and references to nature. Thus the various horizontal lines on the bamboo stalk are similar in appearance to such Chinese characters as those for "positively," "heart," "second," and "eight." This close correlation between calligraphy and art has already been noted. The stem of the bamboo is similar in appearance to rats' tails, and the seven-leaf arrangements (odd numbers are favored) appear as "fishtails," "goldfish triple tails," and the "swallowtail." These cross references to nature reveal the harmony between art and nature and between all created things.
The bamboo is also associated with various mythological and folklore stories, such as the "Seven Sages in the Bamboo Grove" (Fig. 119). As in all Japanese art the bamboo is represented in keeping with the season and in symbolic accordance with the rest of the pictorial element. Thus it is often depicted giving refuge to the tiger during a storm and is symbolically associated with the crane representing long life, fidelity, and constancy. Finally the bamboo is presented in accordance with the previously mentioned canons of Japanese art along with whatever decorative elements and acceptable artistic license the artist may choose.
Thus we have seen that constant intercourse between nature and daily life was an integral part of Japanese cultural expression, and it was this combination that produced the various pictorial and decorative elements of Japanese lacquer ware, which evolved into a unique national art form.
2
THE HISTORY OF JAPANESE LACQUER CONSISTS OF THE VARIOUS political, religious, and economic stimuli throughout the centuries which founded and fostered this branch of Japanese art. This chapter concerns itself basically with the historical influences on three major phases of lacquer art: 1) the overall development of lacquering and lacquer schools, 2) the origin and development of the major lacquer techniques, and 3) the development of lacquer design and subject matter.
Ancient Period (to A.D. 552)
The basic art of lacquering originated in China. It was subsequently introduced into Japan, where it flourished and gradually developed its own characteristics. Unfortunately we have only scant knowledge concerning the details of lacquer techniques during the Ancient period. Relics of lacquered bowls, combs, and amulets dating
