stylized, calm, expressionless, stoic Chinese faces and figures to that which depicted softer figures expressing rhythm and movement and displaying more individual facial expressions. Such trends were foretold especially in the early Japanese Buddhist sculpture, which was often lacquered to give the figure an added softness and a quiet grace.
Kamakura Period (1185-1392)
Japanese art, which had formerly been patronized only by Buddhist sects and the nobility at Kyoto, now found new patrons in the shogunate established at Kamakura and in the rising warrior class. Lacquer products of the era of Emperor Gotoba, who reigned from 1183 to 1198, were preserved in the temple of Hachiman in Kamakura. Such articles are decorated with birds or chrysanthemums encrusted with mother-of-pearl. It is noted in old records that Minamoto Yoritomo's (1147-99) wife Masako had great admiration for lacquered objects. The Kamakura school of lacquer came into existence during this time. The re-establishment of relations with Sung China presaged the influence of Zen Buddhism on Japanese art, which was felt mainly in the following Muromachi period. In 1315 the temple known as the Hideyoshi-ji was decorated with lacquer by famous lacquerers, including such artists as Kiyomitsu, Morichika, Moriuji, Yoshinaga, Tomoshige, Tomonage, Kunitomo, and Morihiro. During the 14th and 15th centuries, besides the Kamakura lacquerers, Kyoto again started to produce lacquer work. Technically, silver powder was not used as in the Heian period, giving works more strength at the expense of finesse. Hiramakie (flat design) and takamakie (raised design) developed along with new powders: hirame-fun (flake gold), nashiji-fun (fine aventurine gold), and kirigane (cut gold). Makie powders showed a greater range from coarse to very fine, and mother-of-pearl was often used alone and more intricately, especially as seen on saddles. Two special types of lacquer techniques developed during this era. The first was Kamakura-bori originated by the sculptor Koben, and was copied from Chinese carved lacquer. The second was the Negoro-nuri technique (Sho-o era, 1288-92) developed by the priests in the monastery of Negoro in Kii to produce red-and-black-lacquered eating and drinking vessels. In 1585 their temple was destroyed by Hideyoshi, and the few survivors fled to Kuroe in the province of Kii, continuing their production of lacquer ware for a short time.
The various lacquer techniques were often used to illustrate popular poems (waka) by incorporating into the design various Chinese characters of the poem. This poem (or song) picture technique was called utae and was probably Japanese in origin, although it was also practiced by the Chinese artisans.
Japanese art, including that of lacquer ware, continuing under the influence of the Yamato-e school, tended to veer more toward secular subjects, and nature was portrayed more realistically. Through the influence of the military spirit, works were stronger in appearance, sharper, more detailed, and form and lines were stronger and more angular. The omission of shadings of silver powder during this period and the use of various gold powderings and flakes in both subject matter and background, along with a profuseness of subject matter, resulted in less delicate and more gaudy pictorial designs.
Muromachi (Ashikaga) Period (1392-1573)
Japanese art during the Muromachi period was influenced essentially by Zen Buddhism, the renewal of trade with China, and the continued patronage of the arts under the shoguns Yoshimitsu and Yoshimasa. The overthrow of the Kamakura bakufu involved the destruction of the town of Kamakura, the shogunate being returned to Kyoto. In the 14th century two retainers of the Ashikaga family built castles at Sakai in the province of Izumi, thereby attracting lacquer artists to this area and inspiring new developments in the lacquer art. Yoshimitsu re-established trade with China through the Chinese port of Nimpo, and the local provinces also traded with China. Japanese Zen priests went to China to study, bringing back Chinese Zen culture. Many Chinese art objects were thus imported to Japan, including Sung and Yuan paintings and the new techniques of Ming lacquer ware, all of which were highly prized by the Japanese. Yoshimitsu (1358-1408) built the famous Kinkaku (Gold Pavilion) in Kyoto and retired there to indulge in Zen art and Chinese painting. Similarly Yoshimasa (1435-90) retired after two years as shogun to devote himself to religion (Zen) and art. He built the Ginkaku (Silver Pavilion) at Higashiyama in Kyoto. He took an interest in painting, music, calligraphy, drama, and the tea and incense ceremonies as well as the lacquer and metal arts. He employed Shuko and Jo-o to design new lacquered tea utensils, such as the natsume (tea jar). These were used in the summer in contrast to the pottery jars employed during the winter. He also employed the lac-querer Koami Docho (Michinaga), who often used for his designs the works of famous painters, such as Noami, Soami, and Tosa Mitsunobu. Also serving Yoshimasa was the lacquerer Igarashi Shinsai, whose style was later adopted by the Kajikawa family. The descendants of Shinsai and Michinaga were the outstanding lacquerers of the late Muromachi period. In general Japanese artists, including lacquer artists, began to be known by name during the Ashikaga period along with the beginning of the development of lacquer art schools and families. The lacquer works of this period were appropriately called Higashiyama pieces after the location of the Silver Pavilion. Japanese lacquer was being exported to China, where it was so highly appreciated that between 1426 and 1457 Chinese workmen came to Japan specifically to learn the art of makie, but they Were never able to master the Japanese techniques or artistry in this particular medium.
Meanwhile the importation of Chinese lacquer ware resulted in the adoption and development of new techniques which the Japanese lacquer artists characteristically perfected and incorporated into their armamentarium. An example is the Chinese carved lacquer (choshitsu), also known as Pekin or cinnabar lacquer, which was adopted by the Japanese (see tsuishu, tsuio, tsuikoku, and hashika-bori) by a lacquerer called Monnyu who lived in Kyoto during the reign of Emperor Gotsuchimikado (1464-1500). He also introduced the guri lacquer technique of carving into layers of different colors. During the Muromachi period relief makie further developed and was combined with burnished makie, such as shishiai togidashi. Silver and vermilion lacquer were also used. The old mother-of-pearl technique tended to give way to the new Ming-style thin shell. During this period, however, mother-of-pearl technique was replaced mainly by gold and silver sheet-design lacquer including kana-gai technique. Kama-kura-bori, which was employed in Kamakura, was popular as well as chinkin-bori, both of which were of Chinese influence. The Chinese chinkin-bori is known as lance-gold (tsang-chin) and had been popular since the Sung period (960-1279). In general the gold grounds were still rough, being polished by stone, and the grains of gold still projected beyond the lacquered surfaces. This point is important in determining the age of the lacquer. The technique of Shunkei-nuri, or transparent lacquer, was invented by the lacquerer Shunkei of Sakai in the province of Izumi at the end of the 14th century. Part of the stimulus to lacquer-ware production came from the tea-ceremony lacquered articles as well as those for the incense ceremony (Fig. 42). Lacquered cosmetic kits and especially ink-stone (writing) boxes were popular during this period.
Pictorially the designs of this period were not only affected by freer shapes and the beginnings of Japanese lacquer asymmetry and new techniques but also by the influence of the strong brush strokes of the Chinese Sung and Yuan paintings in the portrayal of rocks, tree trunks, and flowing water. This Chinese influence was incorporated into the Yamato-e style, which continued to develop. Furthermore, the simplicity of Zen art also affected lacquer designs, which became simpler and more artistic than in the preceding period. The designs of the lacquer ware of this period were also adopted from the Kano school as well as from the graceful Tosa school of painting. Previous to the Muromachi period, designs were principally either of birds or flowers, but now landscape designs, temples, and human figures were introduced.
Momoyama Period (1573-1615)
The Momoyama art period was so named because during this period Hide-yoshi built Fushimi Castle in Momoyama in the southern part of Kyoto. The culture of the Momoyama period was influenced essentially by the spirited patronization of the arts by the military rulers (Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and Ieyasu) and the local daimyo, along with cultural contacts with China, Korea, the South Seas, and the West. The civil wars between 1570 and 1592 temporarily dispersed the lacquer artists and burned down their workshops, and once again lacquer art fell into temporary decadence. With the reunification of the country through subjugation of the powerful daimyo and Buddhist sects, art and culture continued to
