Specific metal and lacquer techniques were developed and became known by their provincial origins. New methods were also developed from older similar Chinese techniques. All of these new techniques placed very little stress on makie, which had already reached its maximum development and perfection.
A new type of greenish-blue iridescent thin shell work in imitation of Ming and Korean shell work became popular. It was introduced by the lacquerer Chobei about 1620, using awabi, or sea-ear shell (aogai). This method was now extensively used by the Somada school in the early 19th century, the entire design being made up of tiny iridescent pieces of shell imbedded in a rich black lacquer background (Figs. 44, 78, 80, 160). This style, too, ultimately degenerated into overdetailed ornateness. Different techniques of carved lacquer in the Chinese manner were introduced. These included guri, Zonsei-nuri, and Zokoku-nuri. Zonsei-nuri was originated by the lacquerer Zonsei of the 17th century, and Zokoku-nuri by Tamakaji Zokoku of Takamatsu, in Shikoku, in the mid-19th century. Other new methods included multicolored lacquer techniques, such as Tsugaru-nuri, made for the daimyo of Tsugaru in Hirosaki, and Wakasa-nuri, made in the province of Wakasa. The carved tsuishu lacquer was made in Edo under the shogunate's patronage by the descendants of the Tsuishu family. Various types of transparent lacquer techniques also developed in other provinces—for example, Hida Shunkei in Hida, Noshiro Shunkei in Noshiro in Akita Prefecture (both in the mid-17th century), and Ukitsu-nuri, made by Ukitsu in Nagoya in the mid-19th century. Other provincial techniques were Aizu-nuri in Aizu-Wakamatsu, Kuroe-nuri in Kii, and Awano Shunkei in Ibaraki. Chinkin, known as Wajima ware, was made in Noto Province in the mid-Edo period. An oil-painting technique was practiced in Etchu Province under the local name of Jogahana, which was originated by Hata Jigoemon Yoshinaga in the Momoyama period. The special lacquer-painting technique called Johoji lacquer was done in the village of that name in the province of Mutsu.
Various schools of lacquerers and outstanding lacquer families arose during the Edo period. The Koami, Koma, Kajikawa, and Tsuishu (Yosei) families were just a few, all of whom worked for the court and the shogun-ate (Figs. 45, 46). Various schools using encrustations, such as Somada and Shibayama and the impressionistic school of Koetsu, Soetsu, and Korin, have already been mentioned. Famous individual artists who flourished throughout the Edo period included Shiomi Masanari, Iizuka Toyo, and Igarashi. Doho, the originator of Kaga makie.
The variety of lacquer techniques during the Edo period was applied to a similar expanding variety of forms and subject matter. Besides inro, innumerable types of articles were lacquered, including eating utensils, such as bowls and cups; personal utensils like hair combs, powder brushes, pipes and pipe cases; and various boxes, such as tobacco boxes, tobacco cabinets, pipe sheaths, jewel boxes, cosmetic boxes, needle boxes, string boxes, tea boxes, shell boxes, perfume boxes, incense boxes, lunch and food (picnic) boxes, etc. Similarly, the designs and subject matter of the lacquered articles revealed more variety. Subject matter was greatly expanded and included now every aspect of nature from complete landscape scenes to a single flower or insect (Figs. 47, 48). Animals, fish, fowl, fruit, or a single leaf was fit subject matter. Similarly, along with the conventional portrayal of gods, heroes, warriors, famous poets, mythological creatures, and other legendary characters, more commonplace subjects and scenes from everyday Japanese life were depicted (Fig. 49). However, extremes of banality did not exist in lacquer ware as in the more popular, less expensive art forms, such as woodblock prints and netsuke. Many of the painters of the popular schools made books of sketches (shita-e) which were used as designs for small lacquered articles, such as inro. Lacquer techniques also expanded to include clever imitations of natural wood, such as mokume and shitan-nuri. Clever artists would also have lacquer simulate various metals, such as iron or old bronze, or various types of pottery. Metal (sword furniture) artists would combine their talents with those of the lacquer artist by adding various types of beautiful carved encrustations (Figs. 66, 93, 94). Takamakie was commonly used to copy works of great masters of painting. Ultimately, by the end of the Edo period, lacquer ware lost its simple artistic effect and degenerated into detailed overornate pictorial designs as a result of the lavish demands of the rich merchant class and the increased volume of production using less expensive techniques. Finally, with the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1867, the loss of patronage of the arts through the breakup of the feudal system, the disbanding of the samurai class, and the rise in commodity prices resulting from increased trade with the Western world, the costly art of lacquering completely degenerated. The last outstanding lacquer art school in Japan was headed by the famous artist Shibata Zeshin (1807-91), who followed the fine traditions of this great art of the famous lacquer artists of the past (Figs. 12, 50). After the 19th century the great schools of lacquerers ceased to exist, there remaining in the interim but a handful of good individual lacquer artists.
Modern Period (1868 to present)
During the Meiji era (1868-1912) the emperor Meiji, aware of the decline of lacquer, ordered the establishment of a makie factory in the Imperial Household Department and used Kawanobe Itcho and other lacquer artists to work for him. Inferior lacquer, made basically on a small factory scale, was exported on a commercial basis to the West. Many well-known Occidental art lovers at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century became interested in the Japanese handicrafts, including lacquer, and famous collections were thereby formed. Subsequently many were broken up at auction or dispersed to Western museums. Special exhibitions were held by the Japanese to reveal to the rest of the world the wonders of their lacquer art. Unfortunately, however, economic and cultural circumstances prevented the regrowth of Japanese lacquer art. The Tokyo Fine Arts School, established in 1887, includes a Lacquer Art Department whose first chief was Ogawa Shomin. Subsequently this position was held by Kawanobe Itcho and Shirayama Shosai (1853-1923), the last, and perhaps the greatest of Japan's modern lacquer artists (Figs. 143, 219). Shosai, Zeshin, and Taishin were also appointed as court artists.
During the early part of the 20th century the working lacquer artists were divided into two groups. The first group were those whose pictorial designs were strongly influenced by Western modernistic art and the other group consisted of those who followed the traditional Japanese style of lacquer art. Among the modern school were Yamazaki Kakutaro, Tsuji Koten, and Matsuoka Taiwa. Among the classical school were Yoshida Jun'ichiro, Takano Shozan and the well-known lacquerer Ma-tsuda Gonroku, who is still alive at the present time.
2. INRO. Noh dancer portraying a shojo. Signed: Kanshosai. Noh dancer in takamakie with encrustation of mother-of-pearl on a roiro ground. 31/16" x 31/4" x 7/8". 3 cases and lid.
3. INRO. Dried fish and foliage. Signed: Toyo. The fish is done in silver takamakie, with the eye inlaid in mother-of-pearl on a roiro ground. 31/4" x 2" x 7/8". 4 cases and lid.
4. INRO. Tea bowl and kobako. Unsigned. The tea bowl is in orange and brown takamakie simulating the coarse texture of Raku ware. The kobako is in dark-red lacquer in imitation of guri lacquer on a gold ground. 31/2" x 17/8" x 1". 5 cases and lid.
5. OPPOSITE SIDE of inro in Fig. 4. Colored takamakie in medium relief, simulating a tea caddy partially enclosed within its brocade bag. Note the clever portrayal of the drip glaze, ivory lid, and silken cord of the bag—all realistically executed in appropriately textured lacquer.
6.
