changes of a leaf are popular subjects. In general the Japanese artist would as readily depict a simple worm or bug as an imposing landscape. Occasionally, plant and animal life was portrayed in a very impressionistic manner. Impressionism is best seen in the Korin school of lacquer ware. This is strictly a Japanese innovation, since Chinese impressionistic lacquer ware did not exist. Finally we should note that, in representing nature, the various elements of subject matter are often symbolic and may refer to folklore and mythology as in Chinese art. The symbolic elements, of course, must be in keeping with each other, such as the representing of a fir tree with bamboo, cranes, or tortoises, all of which are symbols of longevity.
Pictorial Subject Matter: Human Figures
Human figures are also handled much differently by the Japanese artisans. True, there are the set Chinese laws for drawing robes, faces, and figures, but all this is modified by the Japanese taste for individualism, expression, motion, realism, and ornamentation. In the early art periods, facial expression, as exemplified by the scroll paintings of the Heian period in Japanese art, was disregarded, being secondary to colorful robes. Similarly the faces in early Japanese Buddhist art reveal lack of individuality. Subsequently a certain amount of stereotyped portrayal developed, warriors collectively being depicted as bold, or ladies as equally beautiful. Ultimately there developed individuality of sentiment and expression. Even gods were softened and humanized in distinction to the placid, esoteric Chinese faces. In fact there is a decided tendency for the Japanese to exaggerate facial expression. This found fruition in depicting the more fierce Buddhist gods and in the concepts of hell. The love of grotesqueness and exaggeration is best seen in the portrayal of various ghosts and hobgoblins so popular in Japanese mythology and folklore. Free vent of the imagination can also be seen in the innumerable types of carved masks as well as in strong facial expressions seen in netsuke. The full range of human emotion and expression is forcefully depicted: from fear, horror, ferocity, humor, and caricature to subtle nobility of spirit. Artistic portrayal of symbolic positioning is also typically seen in the theater. In either case the accepted pattern is for exaggeration of body expressions. Similarly, the masks used in the drama overplay facial expression. While exaggeration of expression was considered poor taste in painting, it ran rampant in the handicrafts, although to a lesser degree in lacquer ware. Along with strong facial expression the Japanese portrayed corresponding power and motion in the muscles, bones, and sinews and in the flowing robes of their subjects (Fig. 32). The stiff Chinese portrayal of robes, especially in ecclesiastical subjects, gave way to softer, more natural flowing lines or to more vigorous swirling, waving, flying ends of draperies and garments in depicting motion and vigor. Such powerful delineation was seen as far back in Japanese sculpture as in portrayals of the guardian gods of the Nara period, in which even the veins of the arms were made to stand out. The muscles of the face, neck, exposed shoulders, forearms, hands, legs, and feet are similarly well anatomically presented with strength and motion. At the other extreme the Japanese artisan would just as carefully paint or carve a serene Buddhist deity or lovely, dainty female with a quiet restraint in which motion and grace might be subtly suggested by a slightly upturned wrist or finger and gently flowing draperies (Fig. 7). Copying the nude figure, on the other hand, played absolutely no part in Japanese art, either in sculpture, painting, or the handicrafts. Human figures were often portrayed in Chinese lacquer art, not as individual entities but as expressionless, motionless, stereotyped, similarly dressed people standing in great numbers in crowded court scenes or amidst scenes of numerous rigid pagodas, houses, trees, bridges, etc. Such works typified the minutely but nonaesthetically carved Chinese tsuishu lacquer ware, which never became very popular in Japan.
Japanese humor and caricature played a considerable role in art as far back as the animal scrolls of the Heian period (794-1185). Not only are animals portrayed in a humorous vein; they are often whimsically shown imitating human characteristics and foibles. Typical examples range from the almost slapstick Japanese humor of a monkey seriously studying an inro with a hand lens or a woman intently picking fleas out of her kimono to that of the subtle, penetrating caricatures of Sharaku's woodblock prints of actors. However, humor played a more predominant role in the plebeian arts like that of the netsuke rather than in lacquer art (Figs. 186, 196). Humor in Chinese art is less common.
Subject Matter: Decorative
Of utmost importance in Japanese art, especially the handicrafts, are the specific Japanese principles and techniques of ornamentation. Early-Japanese art consisted essentially of Chinese art motifs and designs dispersed in the Chinese manner and with backgrounds reflecting Chinese methods. The designs, especially in the handicrafts, were of scrolls and arabesques of Buddhist Chinese-Indian-Persian flavor. The same applies to designs associated with Buddhist iconography, such as the flame pattern seen in halos. Other motifs adopted from the Chinese included conventionalized ocean waves, clouds, and mythological birds and animals like the phoenix (ho-o) and the dragon (ryu). However, such designs were gradually modified to Japanese taste. The birds were made more graceful, and in the case of the mythological Buddhist birds called karyobinga the human face evolved into that of a Japanese woman. These mythological animals and birds were transposed by Chinese art into stiff formal medallions and arabesques as part of the overall scrollwork of conventionalized patterns of tendrils and leaves. These ornamental patterns were quite densely and evenly dispersed over the entire surface area. Backgrounds in paintings were of dark, somber washes. But this formal, heavy method of ornamentation did not for long appeal to the Japanese artisan. By the Heian period, even though the designs were still essentially Chinese in origin, they became less profuse, more curving and delicate in conforming to the somewhat effeminate aesthetic taste of the nobility. In later eras the Japanese continued to adopt Chinese techniques of painting as well as techniques involving the handicrafts, but such methods were used mainly as a means of further enhancing their own decorative patterns. Subject matter became typically Japanese, portraying Japan's own folklore or incidents in the everyday life of its people. This subject matter was tastefully balanced by ornamental decorative patterns. Background effects, especially in the handicrafts, became more and more important in order to enhance the pictorial element. By the early Edo period (17th century) ornamentation had become more and more predominant. Finally, by the late Edo period (19th century), the accent on superfluous and detailed decoration completely overwhelmed many attempts at artistic pictorial effects.
What, then, were the Japanese ornamental techniques? There were both general and also more specific techniques. The general techniques were: 1) subject matter, 2) color, 3) shape, 4) disproportion and impressionism, 5) symmetry, and 6) surface area. The specific techniques were: 1) fretwork, 2) diaper patterns, 3) powderings, 4) medallion work, 5) designs, 6) materials and multiple techniques, and 7) background effects.
Subject matter was often chosen specifically for its decorative effect rather than for artistic accomplishment. This was particularly true in genre painting and in the handicrafts of the late Edo period. Instead of religious subjects and the spiritual, aesthetic portrayal of nature, subjects were chosen such as seen in ukiyo-e prints of beautiful women in colorful flowing robes. Similarly, flowers and scenes on gold backgrounds were depicted on the screens of the daimyo in the Momoyama period (15731615) for purely decorative effect.
Color, at one time considered of secondary importance, now became predominant in Japanese art. Black-and-white paintings gave way to colorful paintings or were combined with color effects. The technique of combining artistry and decorative effect reached its zenith in the Korin school (early 18th century). In metalwork simple artistic monotone ironwork gave way to the lavish use of color obtained by encrustations with gold, silver, copper, and various alloys, such as shakudo, shibuichi, and sentoku. Similarly, in lacquer ware makie techniques became more detailed, colorful, and decorative. Ultimately the makie was combined with blue-green iridescent mother-of-pearl and various colorful encrustations using tinted ivory, metals, coral, malachite, etc.
The shape of decorated objects became more varied, more ornamental, and more dating. Simplicity gave way to irregular forms, often to shapes simulating their pictorial element. Thus an inro depicting sea shells might be made in the form of a sea shell, or a Daruma in the shape of a Daruma (Figs. 31, 103, 104, 212, 229). The use of disproportion for artistic
