domestic and agricultural pollution 340
Poisons, bombs and electric shocks 341
Forest clearance 342
Chapter 5 Lowland forests 343
Diversity 343
Structure and components 346
Characteristics 346
Layering 347
Basal area and biomass 350
Roots 350
Buttresses and trunks 351
Climbing and creeping plants 353
Epiphytes and epiphylls 356
Dynamics 359
Succession and growth cycle 359
Litterfall, nutrient cycling and productivity 365
Flower, fruit and leaf production 366
Herbivory 369
Seed dispersal and predation 379
Composition 385
Composition of mature-phase forest 385
Composition of pioneer- and building-phase forest 394
Animal communities 400
Soil and litter communities 400
Forest floor community 404
Lower and upper canopy communities 415
Comparison of mature- and pioneer-phase faunas 433
The effects of opening forest 434
General effects 434
Wider implications of forest conversion 437
Effects of selective logging on the forest 438
Effects of selective logging on soil and hydrology 440
Effects of selective logging on the fauna 442
Chapter 6 Specific lowland forest types 445
Introduction 445
Peatswamp forest 445
Formation and location 445
Vegetation 446
Fauna 449
Freshwater swamp forest 449
Physical conditions 449
Vegetation 450
Riverine forest 454
Vegetation 454
Fauna 457
Forest on ultrabasic soils 457
Soils 457
Vegetation 460
Fauna 466
Forest on limestone 468
Physical conditions 468
Soils 472
Hydrology 472
Vegetation 474
Effects of disturbance 478
Fauna 479
Monsoon forest 480
Vegetation 480
Fauna 486
The Palu valley: past and future 487
Chapter 7 Mountains 489
Introduction 489
Climate 489
Temperature 489
Relative humidity 491
Clouds 492
Rainfall 492
Ultra-violet radiation 493
Soils 494
Vegetation 495
Structure 495
Zonation 501
Characteristic plants 503
Selected mountains 511
Pollination and dispersal 515
Biomass and productivity 517
Mineral cycling 518
Volcanoes 520
Animals and their zonation 523
Invertebrates 523
Birds 526
Mammals 528
Effects of disturbance 533
Chapter 8 Caves 535
Introduction 535
Cave formation 539
Temperature, humidity and carbon dioxide 543
Characteristic animals and food chains 543
Effects of darkness 544
Echo-location 546
Roof community 549
Swiftlets 553
Floor community 553
