and processes.
The mental states and processes in table I.2 are organized in three major categories: (1) feedback, (2) content, and (3) context. Feedback refers to the information loop between the teacher and the students that provides students with an awareness of what they should be learning and how they are doing. Content refers to lesson progression, which allows students to move from an initial understanding of content to application of content while continuously reviewing and upgrading their knowledge. Context refers to the following student psychological needs: engagement, order, a sense of belonging, and high expectations.
The column Teacher Actions corresponds to each desired mental state and process. For example, the desired mental state of students understanding the progression of knowledge they are expected to master and where they are along that progression (the first row in table I.2) is associated with the teacher action of providing and communicating clear learning goals. Students’ understanding which parts of newly presented content are important and how the parts fit together (the third row) is associated with the teacher action of conducting direct instruction lessons. Students paying attention, being energized, being intrigued, and being inspired (the seventh row) is associated with the teacher’s use of engagement strategies, and so on.
The teacher actions and student mental states and processes translate nicely into a set of questions that help teachers plan units and lessons within those units. In The New Art and Science of Teaching, these are referred to as design questions. Table I.3 depicts these.
Table I.3: Design Questions
| Design Areas | Design Questions | |
| Feedback | 1. Providing and Communicating Clear Learning Goals | How will I communicate clear learning goals that help students understand the progression of knowledge they are expected to master and where they are along that progression? |
| 2. Using Assessments | How will I design and administer assessments that help students understand how their test scores and grades are related to their status on the progression of knowledge they are expected to master? | |
| Content | 3. Conducting Direct Instruction Lessons | When content is new, how will I design and deliver direct instruction lessons that help students understand which parts are important and how the parts fit together? |
| 4. Conducting Practicing and Deepening Lessons | After presenting content, how will I design and deliver lessons that help students deepen their understanding and develop fluency in skills and processes? | |
| 5. Conducting Knowledge Application Lessons | After presenting content, how will I design and deliver lessons that help students generate and defend claims through knowledge application? | |
| 6. Using Strategies That Appear in All Types of Lessons | Throughout all types of lessons, what strategies will I use to help students continually integrate new knowledge with old knowledge and revise their understanding accordingly? | |
| Context | 7. Using Engagement Strategies | What engagement strategies will I use to help students pay attention, be energized, be intrigued, and be inspired? |
| 8. Implementing Rules and Procedures | What strategies will I use to help students understand and follow rules and procedures? | |
| 9. Building Relationships | What strategies will I use to help students feel welcome, accepted, and valued? | |
| 10. Communicating High Expectations | What strategies will I use to help typically reluctant students feel valued and comfortable interacting with me and their peers? |
These ten design questions and the general framework with the three categories provide a road map for lesson and unit planning that not only points to specific strategies but also ensures a focus on student outcomes. Additionally, the framework helps organize a wide array of instructional strategies into a comprehensive network. To illustrate, consider table I.4 (page 8).
Table I.4 depicts forty-three categories of instructional strategies (referred to as elements) embedded in the ten design areas found within three general categories. These forty-three elements address instructional strategies detailed in the multiple and diverse sources briefly mentioned at the beginning of this introduction (Marzano, 1992, 2006, 2007, 2010; Marzano et al., 1988; Marzano et al., 2001; Marzano et al., 2003). Additionally, each element involves multiple strategies. For example, consider element twenty-four within the design area of engagement: increasing response rates. It includes the following nine strategies—nine different ways to increase students’ response rates.
1. Random names
2. Hand signals
3. Response cards
4. Response chaining
5. Paired response
6. Choral response
7. Wait time
8. Elaborative interrogation
9. Multiple types of questions
In all, The New Art and Science of Teaching involves over 330 specific instructional strategies embedded in the forty-three elements.
Table I.4: Elements Within the Ten Design Areas
The Old and New Art and Science of Teaching
The New Art and Science of Teaching has many similarities with the initial framework, although it has undergone significant changes. For example,
