or things other than God, His Names or Attributes, is forbidden.
7. A vow pledged for anything or anyone other than God, is null and void and should not be fulfilled.
8. A Muslim is required not to make absolute assertions without referring to God’s will, and to say instead Inshā’ Allāh (If God wills).
9. To bow in respect to any person in not permitted, as bowing is reserved only for God in the act of prayer.
10. Superstition, for example to refrain from travelling because of some supposed omen against it, is forbidden, because this contradicts the principle of belief in destiny.
11. The purpose of visiting the cemetery, which is recommended in Islam, is to remind the living of death, thus influencing them to better their obedience to God and improve their conduct and behaviour in relation to others.
12. The Ka‘bah is the first house of God on earth. It was built by the Prophet Ibrāhīm and his son Ismā‘īl at Makkah in Arabia. Every Muslim faces the qiblah in prayer the world over; it is a symbol of Muslim unity and of the unity of Islam. But it orients more than the Muslim’s prayer. When animals are slaughtered they are made to face in the direction of the qiblah; deceased Muslims are placed in the grave with their face towards the qiblah. As a mark of respect Muslims should avoid, wherever possible, facing in the direction of the qiblah when relieving themselves.
The contribution of Islamic manners to the unity and solidarity of Muslims will be discussed in greater detail in subsequent pages.
Adherence to the manners of normative Islam will result in the eradication of many bid‘ah that have penetrated into Muslim life. Bid‘ah can be defined as an innovated belief or practice added to the original and authentic Islamic belief or practice.
It has been rejected by the Prophet saying, ‘He who innovates something in this matter of ours that is not of it will have it rejected.’9 And also, ‘…Beware of matters newly introduced (in religion), for every innovation is an error and every error will lead to Hell-fire.’
Anything added and introduced into Islam is considered as bid‘ah and is therefore rejected. The effect of innovations upon the various aspects of Islamic life is tremendously negative. They transform Islam from being a simple religion to one complicated and difficult to practise.. which will lead gradually to the abandonment of at least certain aspects of Muslim life. Bid’ah should not be confused with ijtihād which is the use of individual reasoning to draw conclusions from the Qur’ān or the Sunnah in conformity with the general principles of Islam, and exercised only by qualified scholars.
As mentioned above, many non-lslamic elements have been introduced into the behaviour and manners of Muslims. Here are some examples:
1. Certain religious occasions have been introduced into Islam, such as those of the Prophet’s birthday (Maulid), his Ascension (Mi‘rāj), and his Emigration (Hijrah).
2. Mentioning God’s name audibly and reading the Qur’ān aloud during a funeral procession.
3. Shaking hands following every congregational prayer.
4. The practice that after a certain number of days a bereaved family should prepare food and serve others. The correct Islamic conduct is for friends and relatives to prepare food for the bereaved since they are overwhelmed by sorrow.
5. The practice of plastering and ornamenting graves.
Psychological Aspect of Ādāb al-Islām
One of the striking characteristics of ādāb al-Islām is that psychological factors are fully taken into consideration. A few examples are:
1. Divorce is highly discouraged during the woman’s monthly period, as she is usually passing through a period of psychological tension.
2. Apart from the benefits of hygiene, cleanliness is prescribed in Islam because it refreshes and re-orientates body and mind. This is true in the case of performing ablution before prayer and washing the whole body after sexual intercourse and at the end of childbirth and menstruation. Those who have washed the body of a deceased person are recommended to bathe afterwards. The significance of this advice is that taking a bath in such situations helps to rid people of the psychological effects of those situations.
Medical and Hygienic Aspects of Ādāb al-Islām
Islam teaches Muslims to be always clean and pure. The daily manners of cleanliness and purity of body, place, clothes, etc., contribute enormously to the soundness of bodily health, as reliable medical evidence confirms, for cleanliness prevents the transmission of microbial diseases.
Wuḍū’ (the ablution) demanded of Muslims several times every day, as a necessary condition before prayer, requires washing those parts of the body that are generally exposed to dirt and dust.
Trimming the nails (ordered by Islam) is to prevent the accumulation of dirt and impurities on fingers which are in constant use for eating and drinking, as well as shaking hands.
Cleaning the axillary and pubic regions from growing hair is also prescribed by Islam. It helps to keep the sweat glands functioning well and prevents the multiplication of the bacteria that would otherwise affect those sweat glands.
Among the impurities from which a Muslim should keep away and purify himself, his clothes, etc. are faeces and urine. The urine contains urea and other nitrogenous compounds which disintegrate into ammonia through the effect of bacteria, giving rise to unpleasant odour. Pinworms (oxyuriasis), viral hepatitis, ascariasis and taeniasisi are among the diseases transmitted mainly through swallowing the infective stage present in faeces.
The fact that the Muslim should not overeat, but should rather stop before his stomach is full, has medical as well as social and moral benefits. The stomach contains stretch receptors; when distended it can give rise to pain and discomfort, as well as more disabling ailments.
When drinking, the Muslim is advised not to breathe into the vessel, for carbon dioxide is present in the exhaled air in a higher percentage than in the inhaled air, and high concentrations of carbon dioxide in the circulation negatively influence several physiological functions.
After drinking milk, the Muslim owes special thanks to God,10 for the benefit contained in it. Milk is considered adequate nourishment, a complete diet. It contains all the essential nutritional components: carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, in addition to many vitamins and minerals, mainly vitamin D, calcium, phosphate, deficiencies of which cause rickets in children and oesteomalacia in adults.
Slaughtering according to Islamic law provides meat that is clean of blood. Blood is known to be a good breeding ground for micro-organisms which can be the source of many diseases. Besides the health aspect, there is the cultural fact that many people feel disgusted, even ill, when they see meat with blood clotted or oozing amidst the meat fibres. Eating or drinking blood is forbidden in Islam.
Pork is also forbidden in Islam. Pigs are not selective about what they eat and can be fed on garbage, on food remnants. On this subject, Sakr has observed: ‘There are a good number of germs, parasites and bacteria that infest swine and live in its flesh which, when it is eaten, transmit diseases to man. Among these parasites are tapeworms,
