2IONPIron oxide nanoparticleIOMCInter‐Organization Programme for the Sound Management of ChemicalsISIRIInstitute of Standards & Industrial Research of IranISOInternational Organization for StandardizationHepG2hepatoma G2HepG2human hepatoma cellHSP7070 kilodalton heat shock proteinsKi‐67antigen Ki‐67LC50median lethal concentrationLD50median lethal doseLPSlipopolysaccharideMAPKmitogen‐activated protein kinaseMCF‐7breast cancer cell line. The acronym of Michigan Cancer Foundation‐7Mcl‐1Myeloid cell leukemia 1MDAMalondialdehydeMDA‐MB‐231human breast cancer cellsMFDSMinistry of Food and Drug Safety of the Republic of KoreaMMP‐9matrix metallopeptidase 9MNPsMetallic nanoparticlesmRNAmessenger RNAmtTFAmitochondrial transcription factor ANCIU.S. National Cancer Institute, USANEHINanotechnology Environmental and Health Implications Working GroupNF‐κBnuclear factor kappa‐light‐chain‐enhancer of activated B cellsNIHNational Institute of Health, USANIOSHNational Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, USANISTNational Institute of Standards and Technology, USANMBPThe Advisory Group for Nanotechnologies, Advanced Materials, Biotechnology, and Advanced Manufacturing and ProcessingNMPANational Medical Products Administration, ChinaNNCONational Nanotechnology Coordination Office, USANNINational Nanotechnology Initiative, USANNINNational Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network, USANOAELNo observable adverse effect levelNPsnanoparticlesNRCCanada National Research Council of CanadaNSETThe Nanoscale Science, Engineering, and Technology Subcommittee, USANSNRNew Substances Notification Regulations, CanadaNSRCNanoscale Science Research Centers, USANSTCThe National Science and Technology Council, USANTPNational Toxicology ProgramOECDOrganization for Economic Co‐operation and DevelopmentOELoccupational exposure limitOSHAOccupational Safety and Health Administration, USAOSTPThe Office of Science and Technology Policy, USAp53tumor protein p53PARPpoly(ADP‐ribose)polymerasePBMCPeripheral blood mononuclear cellsPBTpersistent, bioaccumulative, and toxicPCRPolymerase chain reactionPEGPolyethylene glycolPMNpremanufacture noticesPPEpersonal protective equipmentPS20Polysorbate 20PS80Polysorbate 80PtDprevention through designREACHRegulation for the Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and Restriction of ChemicalsRELrecommended exposure limitRITCrhodamine B isothiocyanateROSreactive oxygen speciesSACStandardization Administration of ChinaSDOstandards developing organizationsSDSsafety data sheetSDSSodium dodecyl sulphateSODSuperoxide dismutaseSOD2superoxide dismutase 2SeNPsselenium nanoparticlesSNURsignificant new use rulesSVHCsubstance of very high concernTBARsThiobarbituric acid reactive substancesTGF‐βTransforming growth factor‐βTiO2NPTitanium dioxide nanoparticleTLVthreshold limit valueTMATNNN‐trimethylammonium ethanethiolTNF‐αtumor necrosis factor alphaTNSCTaiwan Nanotechnology Standards CouncilTSCAToxic Substances Control ActTUNELterminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labelingUNCEDUnited Nations Conference on Environment and DevelopmentUNMZCzech Office for Standards, Metrology, and TestingUNPunbound engineered nanoparticlesUSFDAFood and Drug Administration, USAUSPTOU.S. Patent and Trademark Office, USAVAMASVersailles Project on Advanced Materials and StandardsvPvBvery persistent, very bioaccumulativeVEGFvascular endothelial growth factorWELworkplace exposure limitWPMNOECD Working Party on Manufactured NanomaterialsWPMNWorking Party on Manufactured NanomaterialsZnONPZinc oxide nanoparticle
1 Nanomedicines: Applications and Toxicological Concerns
Mrunali Patel1, Rashmin Patel1, and Mahendra Rai2,3
1 Department of Pharmacy, Ramanbhai Patel College of Pharmacy, Charotar University of Science and Technology, (CHARUSAT), CHARUSAT Campus, Changa, GJ, India
2 Department of Biotechnology, Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, Amravati, MH, India
3 Department of Microbiology, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Lwowska, Torun, Poland
1.1 Introduction
Nanotechnology is an evolving technology that has been researched for numerous uses, from material science to life science. A widely used description by National Nanotechnology Initiative, USA, defines nanotechnology as the designing, synthesis, and characterization of materials and structures smaller than 100 nanometers (nm in size or output limit), by controlling the shapes and sizes at the nanoscale (Parappurath et al. 2018; Bayda et al. 2020). The size of 100 nm, however, is not a rigid boundary; it varies depending on the application (McDonald et al. 2015). Recently, the design and manufacture of nanotechnology have risen, including nanoscience, nanomaterials, nanoparticles, nanomedicine, and nanotoxicology. The branch of science dedicated to the study of the peculiar properties of matter at the nanoscale is known as nanoscience (Bayda et al. 2020). The structures made up of aggregated or unbound nanoparticles apply to nanomaterials. As per the International Organization of Standardization, nanoparticles (NPs) are particles whose sizes in one, two, or three dimensions are within the range from 1 to 100 nm (Jeevanandam et al. 2018). Their measurements are equivalent to those of biomolecules such as proteins, DNA, hemoglobin, viruses, and cell membranes. Some of the significant and special characteristics of NPs are higher surface‐to‐mass ratios than the bulk material, altered quantum properties, and their ability to adsorb and hold other substances such as drugs, probes and proteins. They are both present in nature and can be produced by traditional industrial processes and techniques of nanomanufacturing (Shubhika 2013). The nanomaterials are classified based on diverse parameters such as dimensionality, morphology, composition, uniformity, agglomeration rate, and origin (Buzea and Pacheco 2017; Jeevanandam et al. 2018; Trotta and Mele 2019; Khan 2020) as tabulated in Table 1.1.
Nanotechnology employs novel, specific, and selective medicinal products at the nanoscale in the healthcare sector to develop nanomedicines. Nanomedicine is an emerging subdivision of nanotechnology that plays an important role in disease detection, surveillance, prevention, and remediation. The term nano means minuscule, extremely small; so, nanomedicine is concerned with drug formulations in the nano range of sizes (nanoformulations). The nanoformulations can be utilized for delivery of an impressive range of therapeutic drugs by encapsulation or attachment on the surface for a targeted, sustained, and controlled release to almost any tissue/organ/area of the body (Mukherjee et al. 2014; Krukemeyer et al. 2015; Ventola 2017; Fadeel and Alexiou 2020). Possible applications include: nanorobots, nanoscale medicines and targeted delivery of medicines, nanocarriers for drug delivery such as nanocrystal, polymeric NPs, magnetic NPs, mesoporous silica NPs, liposomes, micelles, dendrimers, quantum dots, iron oxide, carbon nanotubes, antimicrobial medical dressings, in vivo imaging techniques, bone and dental prostheses, tissue regeneration, etc. Nanotechnology also enables better identification and understanding of biomarkers. Further, benefits achieved are analysis of the disease stage, three‐dimensional (3D) nanomaterials for injury site, immobilized stem cells, blood glucose metering, delivery of insulin, guided implantation, etc. The financial implications of the use of nanotechnology in medicine were projected to rise to $528 billion by 2019 and will continue to grow dramatically in the coming years, according to recent industry forecasts. Further development in this field enables technology for patient‐specific, targeted, and regenerative medicine (Farjadian et al. 2019).
Table 1.1 An overview of the classification of nanomaterials based on various parameters with a few examples and applications.
Sources: Based on Buzea and Pacheco (2017), Jeevanandam et al. (2018), Trotta and Mele (2019) and Khan (2020).
| Parameter | Classes | Examples | Applications |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dimensionality | Zero‐dimensional (0D) | Quantum dots Dendrimers Fullerenes |
Cell marker, emulsifier in solution, reinforcement filler within
|
