Chinese, German and UK universities that began in 2012 with an aim of increasing global agricultural production. Several research strategies have been developed with successful investigations that include:relaxing mechanisms of photoprotection;by‐passing photorespiration;optimising enzyme activity in the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle;increasing the efficiency of RuBisCo; andoptimising canopies for photosynthesis.Also of note the C4 Rice Project (www.c4rice.com) that is jointly funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, in which researchers from seven institutions in five countries are working together to develop high‐yielding rice cultivars. Their aim is to use gene editing to introduce C4 photosynthetic machinery into rice, a C3 crop, which currently accounts for 19% of all calories consumed in the world. If successful, rice plants could be 50% more productive.10 Finally, the ‘Hands Free Hectare’ project in the UK, demonstrated in 2016 that it is possible to drill, tend and harvest a crop of spring barley without operators of machines or agronomists in the field. It proves that there is no technical barrier to automated field agriculture. Weed control is achieved by aerial sensors that ensure that only weed‐infested areas of a field are sprayed, rather than the whole field, thereby reducing inputs. It is assumed that unmanned automation will become an increasingly important part of agriculture in the future. Achieving precision spraying with dedicated robots fitted with associated sensors is a current engineering challenge (Ghaffarzadeh, 2017). Flavell (2016) has argued that we need to generate clear plans to increase the confidence of investors and society in the future of the plant sciences. Our collective challenge is therefore to see technological advances in the engineering and plant sciences lead to new concepts, products and innovations that will improve the efficiencies of agriculture in the future.
11 A key conclusion of the 2019 cross‐sector review of weed management, commissioned by the UK Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board and the British Beet Research Organisation, was that the approach to Weed Management in the UK needs to be overhauled, and a major investment is required. The review noted that, inter alia: (a) essential information on weed management could be lost to the industry without appropriate key sources of references and an archive; (b) coordinated programmes of research and knowledge transfer are necessary to make the best use of depleted national funding; and (c) the plant protection industry needs to be more unified and strategic to maximise the chances of such methods and research results making an economic difference to farms and growers. I hope that the contribution of research institutes, colleges and universities are to the fore in any future update in the training of the next generations of plant protection personnel.
12 As we have entered a new decade, agrochemical inputs are becoming increasingly under scrutiny and some would argue that agrochemical technology is reaching its limits (Altieri, 2019). Why is this?Large‐scale crop monocultures occupy about 80% of the 1.5 billion hectares currently used in global agriculture.Approximately 2.3 billion kg of pesticides are applied each year to keep weeds, fungal and insect pests at bay.However, less than 1% of pesticides reach the target weed or pest, so that most ends up in the soil, water and the air, leading to declines in biodiversity, especially pollinators, and the natural enemies of pests.Monoculture agriculture leads to pesticide resistance.It follows that the removal of pesticides and herbicides will restore biodiversity and a renewed interest in the biological control of pests. Biodiversity can also be enhanced using cover crops, inter‐cropping, rotations, agroforestry and the introduction of livestock into crop fields. Surrounding these fields with hedgerows and corridors also generates more complex habitats, as field margins are reservoirs of the natural enemies of crop pests, and provide over‐wintering sites for wildlife. In this way, it is thought that replacing monocultures with more complex agricultural systems will contribute to yield advantages via improved biodiversity, enhanced soil quality and resilience to climate change. Such arguments are ecologically persuasive, but more evidence, including detailed cost/benefit analysis, is required before extrapolation to weed control by herbicides. Nonetheless, the observed global increase in weed resistance to herbicides in recent decades is clearly linked to monoculture, and shows no signs of decline.
13 So how can politicians, growers, farmers and the agrochemical industry become more ecologically aware and promote more sustainable practices?The industry should recommend and use technologies for a more precise application of agrochemicals that will reduce application volumes and cumulative dosage.Greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced and soils preserved by promoting minimal tillage and fewer, but more targeted agrochemical applications.More informed farming practices that are sustainable for the use of agrochemicals should be encouraged by continuing professional development and re‐education of farmers and growers.Biodiversity should be encouraged by returning to more complex agro‐ecosystems.We have the tools and knowledge to defeat hunger and malnutrition, but do we have the political will and commitment to do so?Despite these reservations it is important to remember that without herbicides and the sustainable intensification of agriculture we would not be able to feed the existing and growing global population. We must remain alert, however, to the environmental consequences of their use. Furthermore, it is vital that independent research in the plant sciences continues to be supported by national bodies in universities and research institutes. New discoveries and current understanding of how plants are adapted to their ever‐changing environments will continue to drive agrochemical research and development in the years to come.The starting point of this book is weed biology. Subsequent chapters consider the modern plant protection products industry, how herbicides are discovered and developed, how they gain entry into the plant and move to their sites of action, and the basis of herbicide selectivity. Detailed and updated accounts follow of how herbicides interact with the major physiological processes in plants, leading to weed control. This begins with the inhibition of photosynthesis, followed by pigment biosynthesis, interactions with the plant growth regulator, auxin, lipid biosynthesis, amino acid biosynthesis, cell division, cellulose biosynthesis, the plant kinome, herbicide resistance, the development of genetically modified herbicide‐resistant crops and a consideration of some new targets for the future development of new herbicides.In the dozen years since the last edition was written, there have been many advances reported in the plant physiology literature. There has been continuing progress in our understanding of the Arabidopsis genome and our model plant species, and gene editing techniques are now commonplace. It is fascinating to recall that 10 years ago gene editing techniques had not been published. We now understand more about the mechanisms whereby environmental change and protein synthesis are in tune with both biotic and non‐biotic stresses, enabling plant physiology to adapt to an ever‐changing plant environment. Consequently, much of this text is new and many recent references have been added. Note, however, that many older references and figures have been retained because they remain relevant in demonstrating how our understanding has developed, and that the work of previous generations of plant scientists is not forgotten. Of course, the errors are still mine and hopefully will be remedied in time.It is with regret that the co‐author of the second edition of this book, Dr John Reade, has been unable to contribute to this volume, owing to other commitments. He continues to teach the next generations of plant scientists at Harper Adams University and supervises research students with his trademark enthusiasm and intelligence.
And finally,
I think it must be rather nice
to live by giving good advice;
to talk of what the garden needs
instead of pulling up the weeds. (Reginald Arkell, 1882‐1959)
Andy Cobb
July 2021
References
1 Altieri, M.A. (2019). Pesticide treadmill. Chemistry and Industry 11, 37.
2 Caine, R.S., Yin, X., Sloan, J., Harrison, R.L., Mohammed, U., Fulton, T. et al. (2019) Rice with reduced stomatal density conserves water and has improved drought tolerance under future climate conditions. The New Phytologist 221, 371–384; doi: org/10.1111/nph.15344
