A.J., Koehler, A.‐K., Ramirez‐Villegas, J., Whitfield, S. and Das, B. (2016) Current warming will reduce yields unless maize breeding and seed systems adapt immediately. Nature Climate Change 6, October; doi: org/10.1038/nclimate30614 Connor, D.J. (2008) Organic agriculture cannot feed the world. Field Crops Research 106, 187–190.
5 Ehrlich, P.R. and Harte, J. (2015) Opinion: to feed the world in 2050 will require a global revolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, 14743–14744.
6 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO (2017) The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World. Building Resilience for Peace and Food Security. Rome.
7 Fischer, R.A., Byerlee, D. and Edmeades, G.O. (2014) Crop yields and global food security: Will yield increase continue to feed the world? Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research Monograph No.158. Canberra.
8 Flavell, R. (2016) Making plant science purposeful and relevant to all. Journal of Experimental Botany 67, 3186–3187.
9 Ghaffazadeh, K. (2017) Deep learning for agchems. Chemistry and Industry 9, 36.
10 IFPRI (2016) Global Food Policy Report: How we feed the world is unsustainable.
11 Oerke, E.‐C. and Dehne, H.‐W. (2004) Safeguarding production losses in major crops and the role of crop protection. Crop Protection 23, 275–285.
12 Palmer, R.C. and Smith, R.P. (2013) Soil structural degradation in SW England and its impact on surface‐water run‐off generation. Soil Use and Management 92, 567–575; doi: 10.1111/sum.12068
13 Pesticides in Perspective (n.d.) An introduction to crop protection. The Crop Protection Association, UK. www.pesticidesinperspective.org.uk
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Weed Biology
One year’s seed is seven year’s weed.
A traditional rhyme
1.1 Introduction
The human race has been farming for over 10,000 years. Weeds have been an unwelcome presence alongside crops ever since the first farmers saved and planted seeds in the region that is now present‐day Turkey and the Middle East. Indeed, when these early farmers noticed a different plant growing, decided they did not want it and pulled it up, they were carrying out a form a weed control that is still used today: hand roguing.
But what are weeds? Weeds are all things to all people, depending on the viewpoint of the individual. To some they are plants growing where they are not wanted; to others they are plants growing in the wrong place, in the wrong quantity, at the wrong time; and to some they are regarded as plants whose virtues have yet to be fully discovered! The need to control weeds only arises when they interfere with the use of the land, and this is usually in the presence of a crop, such as in agriculture and horticulture. Weed control may also be necessary in other situations including amenity areas, such as parks and lawns, in water courses, or on paths and drives where the presence of plants may be regarded as unsightly. It should not be overlooked, however, that weeds contribute to the biodiversity of ecosystems and should only be removed when financial or practical implications make their presence unacceptable. With this in mind an appropriate definition of a weed is:
Any plant adapted to man‐made habitats and causing interference of the use of those habitats. (Lampkin, 1990)
Or
A plant whose virtues remain to be discovered. (Emerson, 1912, see https://theysaidso.com/quote/ralph‐waldo‐emerson‐what‐is‐a‐weed‐a‐plant‐whose‐virtues‐have‐never‐been‐discovered)
1.2 Distribution
On a global basis only about 250 species are sufficiently troublesome to be termed weeds, representing approximately 0.1% of the world’s flora. Of these, 70% are found in 12 families, 40% alone being members of the Gramineae and Compositae. Interestingly, 12 crops from five families provide 75% of the world’s food and the same five families provide many of the worst weeds (Table 1.1). This implies that our major crops and weeds share certain characteristics and perhaps common origins.
Table 1.1 Important plant families which contain both the major crops and the worst weeds of the world.
Source: Radosevich, S.R. and Holt, J.S. (1984) Weed Ecology: Implications for Vegetation Management. New York: Wiley. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons.
| Number of species classified as the world’s worst weeds (%) | Family | Examples of major crops | Examples of major weeds | Common name |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 44 | Gramineae | Barley, maize, millett, oats, rice, sorghum, sugar cane and wheat | Elytrigia repens (L.) | Couch |
| Alopecurus myosuroides (L.) | Black‐grass | |||
| Avena fatua (L.) | Wild oat | |||
| Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. | Johnson grass | |||
| Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) | Barnyard grass | |||
| 4 | Solanaceae | White potato | Solanum nigrum (L.) | Black nightshade |
| Datura stramonium (L.) | Jimsonweed | |||
| Hyoscyamus niger (L.) | Henbane | |||
| 5 | Convolvulaceae | Sweet potato | Convolvulus arvensis (L.) | Field bindweed |
| Cuscuta pentagona (Engelm) | Field dodder | |||
| Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth | Tall morning glory | |||
| 5 | Euphorbiaceae | Cassava | Euphorbia maculata (L.) | Spotted spurge |
| Euphorbia helioscopia (L.) | Sun spurge | |||
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