with the position of the communicator. Findings detected that persons who received freedom threatening communications in agreement with their own position tended to move away from the advocated position, while those in all other conditions tended to move toward the advocated position.
Linder et al. (1971)
Time prior to decision making was manipulated, with results supporting the hypothesis that the shorter the decision time the more likely attractiveness of alternatives converges.
Worchel and Brehm (1971)
Explored direct or implied restoration of freedom. Results from both experiments supported the hypothesis that restoration of freedom reduces the increase in desirability of the alternative which results from a threat to freedom
Berkowitz (1973)
The author reviewed studies that displayed individuals’ unwillingness to aid others and utilized reactance theory.
Andreoli, V.A., Worchel, S. & Folger, R. (1974)
Identified conditions necessary for the arousal of reactance by implication. This study showed that reactance can be aroused by implication (by observing another person’s freedom being threatened) and restored by implication (observing another person’s freedom restored).
Wicklund (1974)
Reviewed studies undertaken on reactance.
Brehm and Mann (1975)
Examined the effect of group conformity pressure on public and private opinions with regard to reactance. Results displayed that if importance of freedom is relatively great to the individual, both private and public compliance decrease, as group attraction increases.
Heilman and Toffler (1976)
Investigated the conditions under which the negative consequences of social influence attempts can be mitigated by freedom-affirming interventions. The results showed that in social situations individual’s concerns about their freedom were interpersonally motivated.
Miller (1976)
Assessed varied intensities of exposure of a persuasive message on attitude change and psychological reactance. This study showed that mere exposure enhances the evaluation of stimuli whereas overexposure dampens positive attitudinal effects.
Snyder and Wicklund (1976)
Examined the effect of exercising prior freedom and reactance. The two experiments of this study showed that when an individual exercises their freedom prior to it being threatened, they do so to prevent the onset of reactance.
Brehm and Weinraub (1977)
Applied the theory of reactance to the attractiveness of goal objects when impeded by barriers. This study found that two-year-old boys were more reactant than two-year-old girls and this was due either to perception of cues and culture.
Carver (1977)
Investigated the role of self-awareness in the perception of threat and resultant reactance. They found that an individual will resist persuasion once a communication is interpreted as coercive and this can happen when the individual has some degree of self awareness.
Stillman (1977)
A review of freedom and reactance by Robert A. Wicklund.
Baer et al. (1980)
Examined the extent that individuals can project autonomy before or after a threat to freedom. This study supported the self-presentational view of reactance, in that reactance effects were confined to participants’ public attitudes, whereas their private attitudes were unchanged. When prior exercise of freedom was public, the reactance process for participants was hindered.
Clee and Wicklund (1980)
A review of psychological reactance and its broad applicability to consumer behavior.
Brehm and Brehm (1981)
Described the theory and research of psychological reactance.
Wright and Brehm (1982)
Critically reviewed reactance and impression management.
Brockner et al. (1983)
Explored the influential properties of self-esteem and self-consciousness when interacted with the Wortman-Brehm model of reactance and learned helplessness. Low self-esteem individuals exhibited more reactance effects when they had high self-consciousness and with extended failure they were more likely to show helplessness than individuals with high self esteem.
Seltzer (1983)
Explored the dynamics of paradoxical intervention by stressing external or situational pressures and the link to psychological reactance. Results suggested that the final choice was influenced by reactance although its primary determinants were the student’s self-efficacy and opportunistic ideals.
Mikulincer (1988)
Examined the effects of the internal-external attributional style on affective and performance reactions following different amounts of failure. Results indicated that following exposure to four unsolvable problems, internal attributors exhibited stronger feelings of incompetence and a decrease in performance compared with external attributors.
Nail et al. (1996)
Tested the effectance versus self-presentational view of reactance. The study found that interpersonal processes can affect the expression of reactance and suggests that in some cases, concern for self-presentation may be a necessary condition for measurable reactance effects to occur.
Wicklund (1997)
Reviewed the theory of psychological reactance.
Bushman (1998)
Investigated the effect of informational warning labels on consumerables. Results were consistent with the prediction, although not significant, warning labels may have considerable influence on behavior in situations in which there are clear low-cost behavioral alternatives that are reasonably satisfactory.
Burger (1999)
A review of foot-in-the-door manipulation psychological reactance and other psychological processes.
Beutler et al. (2002)
Review of resistance and reactance in psychotherapy.
Crawford et al. (2002)
Assessed whether anticipated regret impacted one’s decision to react or comply. The results displayed that anticipated regret cannot account for reactance effects. Participants were more likely to perceive greater anticipated regret associated with reactance versus compliance and thus complied.
Silvia (2005)
Explored psychological reactance with focus on individuals and their similarity to persons/communicators who are threatening their freedom. Findings indicated that dissimilarity with the communicator invoked reactance whereas similarity to the communicator increased liking and consequently compliance.
Bushman (2006)
Investigated the effect of informational warning labels on attraction to violence in television viewers of different ages. Across age viewers consider warning labels to be a restriction on their freedom to watch what they want.
with the position of the communicator. Findings detected that persons who received freedom threatening communications in agreement with their own position tended to move away from the advocated position, while those in all other conditions tended to move toward the advocated position.
