Animal Behavior for Shelter Veterinarians and Staff. Группа авторов

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postures and facial expressions communicate intent and emotional state at a particular moment. Specific behaviors and body positions can have multiple meanings; thus, assessing the entire body, other signals (e.g., vocalizations), and the context is critical when humans are trying to interpret a cat’s emotional state.

Photo depicts tail up greeting display of a cat.

      Source: Reproduced with permission from N. Drain. © Natasha Drain.

Photo depicts defensive position.

      Source: Reproduced with permission from K. Watts. © Katie Watts.

      General Appendix B describes common feline body language characteristics.

      As a species, cats are extremely adaptable to various environments, but the degree of plasticity is determined by a combination of genetics, prenatal environment, and postnatal experiences, especially those occurring during the socialization development period. Born blind, deaf, and completely dependent on the queen for nourishment, the neurological, musculoskeletal, and cognitive maturation of a kitten from birth to adulthood is a short but complex process.

      2.5.1 Genetics

      Cat personalities seem to be stable and vary along several dimensions of confidence, nervousness, sociability, and activity (Lowe and Bradshaw 2001; Karsten et al. 2017; Litchfield et al. 2017). Personality, like most behavioral phenotypes, is a confluence of environmental and genetic influences. Kittens sired by males with outgoing and friendly personalities were found to show more approach and affiliative behaviors to people, be less stressed by the approach of unfamiliar people, and be more likely to spend time near a novel object (McCune 1995; Reisner et al. 1994). However, handling and socialization provided a protective effect against some fearful and defensive behaviors. Friendly sired but unsocialized kittens behaved in a similar manner to unfriendly sired socialized kittens (McCune 1995).

      2.5.2 Sensitive Periods of Development

      2.5.2.1 Prenatal

      The nutritional status of a dam and her exposure to certain stimuli during the 63‐day gestation period can influence postnatal behavior of her offspring. For instance, kittens show a preference for certain flavors fed to their queen during the prenatal period (Becques et al. 2009). Queens placed on protein‐ or calorie‐restricted diets can produce offspring with elevated emotional reactivity and impairments in social interactions, environmental exploration, and learning (Gallo et al. 1980). Even food restriction limited to the second half of gestation can result in abnormal physical and emotional traits (Smith and Jansen 1977). Studies from other mammalian species indicate offspring born to dams exposed to excessive environmental stressors, such as unpredictable noise stimuli, may suffer from impaired cognitive and neurologic development (Schneider and Moore 2000). Kittens exposed to significant prenatal stress may suffer similar developmental dysfunction.

      2.5.2.2 Neonatal (0–14 days)

      Kittens are usually able to hear by the fifth day of life, although the external pinnae do not become erect and the ear canal does

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