behaviors (Burghardt 2005). However, research of kittens raised in barren environments provided evidence that play does not seem to be a required precursor for many behaviors, particularly those like predation that are related to survival (Thomas and Schaller 1954). Early experiences can impact the timing and character of play behaviors. Genetics, sex, learning, and characteristics of the queen, litter, and target of play can alter the development of play behaviors in cats (Delgado and Hecht 2019).
Figure 2.3 Kitten object play.
Source: Reproduced with permission from M. Allison. © Meg Allison.
Social interactions begin around 2 to 3 weeks of age in kittens, and social play is apparent by 4 weeks, peaking around 9 to 14 weeks. Social play progresses from chasing and running to stalking and wrestling. Play solicitation behaviors include exposing the belly, pouncing, raising the front paws up, and side stepping (West 1974). As the kitten ages, interest switches from social partners to objects. The first instances of object play coincide with the queen’s provision of prey items to her kittens. Object play is very prevalent by 7 weeks, or the end of weaning, but does not peak until around 18 to 21 weeks of age (Mendoza and Ramirez 1987). Object play in older kittens and adults resembles predatory behaviors such as batting, scooping, pouncing, grasping and biting. Singleton kittens, those weaned early, and those under food restriction tend to display more object play (Guyot et al. 1980; Bateson and Young 1981) (see Figure 2.3).
As most cat owners can attest, object play continues into adulthood (Mendoza and Ramirez 1987). Although there are no studies documenting any long‐term benefits of play in cats, object play is frequently recommended by veterinarians and behaviorists as a tool to provide aerobic exercise and environmental enrichment to cats. Toys that mimic features of a mouse—small, furry, moving in quick motions like prey—seem to elicit the most interest and predatory play response from cats (Hall et al. 2002; Vitale Shreve and Udell 2015). Movement of an object away from the cat elicits a stronger chase reaction (Leyhausen 1979). Repeated interactions with an object can result in habituation, or a loss of interest in that item. Novelty in color, shape, and odor can reduce habituation. Hall et al. (2002) suggest toys that somehow change in shape help maintain a cat’s interest in the toy.
2.6.2 Hunting
Cats are highly motivated to hunt. In fact, hunger and recent feeding behavior may reduce consumption and time spent hunting but not the motivation to stalk and capture prey (Fitzgerald and Turner 2000). Cats may even stop eating if the opportunity to hunt and kill presents itself during a meal. A cat may eat 10 to 20 small meals throughout a 24‐hour period, although this may be concentrated to crepuscular periods in free‐roaming cats but spread throughout the day for housecats. In general, cats living in human homes tend to take on a more diurnal pattern like humans (Overall et al. 2005). Although hunting is a reflexive behavioral pattern displayed even if a cat is raised in isolation, maternal influence and early experience can shape hunting behavior and food preference (Kuo 1930, 1938). Cats are less likely to predate on small mammals if raised with these potential prey species from a young age, preferably starting during the two to seven weeks of age socialization period (Kuo 1938).
2.6.3 Ingestive Behavior
Cats are obligate carnivores and have specific dietary requirements best met through animal‐based diets. Several essential compounds cannot be autosynthesized by cats and, therefore, must be obtained from the environment. Animal products contain sulfur‐rich amino acids (methionine, cysteine, taurine), vitamins (niacin and thiamine), essential fatty acids, and high‐protein content necessary for basic feline metabolic functions. Moreover, cats are limited in their ability to process plant‐derived foods (Zoran and Buffington 2011).
Cats can be picky eaters, developing a strong preference for only a few foods while refusing to eat others (Overall et al. 2005; Stasiak 2002). Food preference or aversion can be mitigated if food items with a variety of textures and flavors are presented to kittens at a young age. Cats may develop a learned aversion if a certain food becomes associated with nausea, force feeding, or medication administration (Stasiak 2001).
Obesity is the most prevalent form of malnutrition in cats living in developed countries. In the United States, an estimated 60% of cats have a body condition score above the ideal range, and 34% of cats are classified as obese (Association for Pet Obesity Prevention 2019). Free‐roaming cats tend to eat many small meals, and the unnatural practice of feeding housecats one or two larger meals may be a risk factor for obesity. Therefore, offering cats ad libitum food may trigger more natural feeding behavior and intake regulation, but this practice is complicated by competition in multi‐cat homes. The optimal feeding routine in a home setting appears to be mimicking natural hunting and feeding strategies by providing opportunities for a cat to seek out food and manipulate food‐dispensing objects throughout the day (Rochlitz 2005; Dantas et al. 2016). An alternative could include using food as a reward during behavior training sessions instead of bowl feeding. Such environmental enrichment has been shown to be an effective therapy for stress‐related conditions like chronic feline lower urinary tract disease (Buffington et al. 2006) and may also be a means of increasing activity and possibly reducing obesity (Dantas et al. 2016). Indoor cats are at a higher risk for both conditions and enrichment is of particular importance for this population (Rodan and Heath 2015).
Some cats display unacceptable or abnormal oral behaviors. Chewing or ingesting non‐food materials (pica) such as plants, fabric, plastic, rubber, cords, or string has been reported by some cat owners (Houpt 2018). Plant or grass eating seems to be a normal behavior, although anecdotally the practice has been linked to gastrointestinal purging (Hart and Hart 2014a). Discomfort due to dental or abdominal pain as well as any metabolic, organ, or neurologic disease should be ruled out or addressed as potential factors in abnormal oral behaviors. Hunger may trigger chewing of unacceptable targets, and some instances of pica may occur during predatory play or predation misdirected toward an object. Chewing can become a learned attention‐seeking or stress‐displacement behavior in some cats, but excessive pica may be consistent with a compulsive disorder. A behavior can be classified as a compulsive disorder when it is repetitive, occurs outside of the normal context, and, once established, often occurs unrelated to any obvious trigger and interferes with basic functioning. Stress or emotional conflict is thought to be an initiating factor in compulsive disorders. Wool and other fabrics are the most common targets in cats diagnosed with a compulsive pica behavior (Landsberg et al. 2013). Recent studies suggest compulsive pica in cats may be associated with gastric dysregulation (Demontigny‐Bédard et al. 2019). In addition to a complete medical assessment, treatment includes restricting access to objects (e.g., blocking access to certain rooms, covering of rubber/plastic cords with PVC piping), enrichment, and potentially psychoactive medications (Landsberg et al. 2013).
2.6.4 Elimination
Basic feline elimination behavior consists of searching for a quiet and secluded area, digging a small depression in an acceptable substrate, and covering the waste after elimination (Heath 2019). On closer inspection, the sequence is actually quite complex and may include up to 39 individual behaviors (McGowan et al. 2017). Cats are known to be fastidious, traveling to specific latrine areas located away from sleeping or feeding sites to eliminate. This limits the odor and reduces the risk of disease and parasite transmission (Hart and Hart 2014a).
Failure to provide an indoor cat with a litterbox environment that sufficiently mimics natural conditions can result in elimination outside of a designated box. Eliminations also serve a communication function, and waste found outside the litterboxes or latrine areas may be an indication of social or environmental stress.
