literature. Broad descriptors that do not give any indication of the underlying motivation include inappropriate urination, housesoiling, and periuria (if specific to urination) (Barcelos et al. 2018; Borns‐Weil 2019). Some have recently argued for replacing the term “inappropriate” with “unacceptable” when referring to feline eliminations outside of designated areas because the cats are behaving normally in most instances, but the human caretakers have provided suboptimal conditions (Heath 2019). The physiologic need to empty the bladder or colon is referred to as toileting or elimination. Urine marking/spraying and middening are depositing urine or feces, respectively, outside of the box for communicative purposes. Risk factors for unacceptable elimination include living in a multi‐cat household, suboptimal litterbox facilities, stress and anxiety, and detection of unfamiliar outdoor cats (Borns‐Weil 2019; Heath 2019). Research findings warn against using any single factor to diagnose toileting or marking behavior (Barcelos et al. 2018).
Housesoiling is often a life‐threatening condition in cats due to the high risk of relinquishment or euthanasia of these cats. Proper diagnosis of medical problems, toileting, or marking begins with obtaining a thorough history, physical examination, blood work, urinalysis, and fecal analysis. Many cats with urinary toileting issues often have an underlying medical component such as bacterial infection or feline interstitial cystitis (Westropp et al. 2019). The substrate and location of the soiled area may be consistent or seem random but is usually a horizontal surface. Cats tend to prefer large, uncovered boxes with fine‐grained clumping litter and once‐daily cleaning (Guy et al. 2014; Landsberg et al. 2013). However, recent studies isolating individual factors bring into question some of these clinical impressions (Barcelos et al. 2018; Ellis et al. 2017; Grigg et al. 2012). Boxes located in areas that are too noisy or require a cat to come into contact with an aversive stimulus (e.g., stairs for arthritic cat, another aggressive cat) are common triggers for toileting away from the litterbox as well.
Marking cats often spray urine on vertical surfaces in socially prominent areas. Less commonly, marking is on a horizontal surface. Use of the litterbox to toilet usually remains consistent. Often social conflict with other cats, people, or animals in the home results in marking behavior. Some cats will mark near windows and walls, suggesting the presence of an outdoor cat. Treatment for marking focuses on alleviating the stress and anxiety experienced by the cat as well as maintaining a proper litterbox environment. Psychoactive medications are a primary therapy for marking and may be helpful in toileting cases that involve stressors as well (Mills et al. 2011). Cleaning of soiled areas with an enzyme‐based cleaner is a treatment for any form of unwanted elimination due to the cat’s natural inclination to gravitate toward previous soiled areas for elimination. All cats in the home with spraying cats have evidence of increased stress levels, and a global approach to reducing stress and anxiety should be undertaken (Ramos et al. 2020).
2.6.5 Scratching
Newborn kittens are able to withdraw their claws at four weeks of age, and they begin adult‐like scratching behavior by the fifth week (Mengoli et al. 2013). Scratching on surfaces serves to maintain claw health by aiding in removal of aging nail sheaths and sharpening claws (Hart and Hart 2014a). Although claw health is theoretically vital for successful hunting and long‐term survival, declawed cats are reportedly efficient hunters (Landsberg 1991). By depositing chemical signals originating from interdigital glands, scratching also disseminates olfactory signals. The act of scratching and slashes resulting from scratching may also convey a visual marker (Feldman 1994). Indoor cats may scratch to gain attention from humans or as a stress‐displacement behavior (Mengoli et al. 2013).
Scratching is a normal and necessary part of the feline behavioral repertoire, and attempts to stop a cat from scratching completely will not only be unsuccessful but can diminish the cat’s welfare. Suggested parameters for the ideal object designated for scratching (scratcher) include a vertical post more than 3 ft. in height or of sufficient length for full forelimb extension and a stable base width between 1 and 3 ft. (Wilson et al. 2016; Zhang and McGlone 2020). There may be some preference for vertical compared to longitudinal orientation of the scratcher in adult cats. Cats in a controlled study seemed to use scratchers covered in sisal rope or cardboard more often than posts with carpet or fabric (Zhang and McGlone 2020), though cat owners frequently reported their cats scratch furniture or flooring covered with soft material (Moesta et al. 2018). An important factor that may help explain these inconsistent findings is the location of the scratcher. The optimal placement of scratchers is in prominent social areas (Mengoli et al. 2013; Moesta et al. 2018). Studies suggest that synthetic interdigital chemicals (Cozzi et al. 2013) and plant‐based attractants (silver vine and catnip) can increase the use of scratching posts (Zhang and McGlone 2020).
Up to 50% of cats exhibit inappropriate scratching behavior, and it is a commonly reported factor in relinquishment (Wilson et al. 2016). Therefore, several methods have been proposed to diminish damage caused to homes by cat scratching behavior. In addition to posts with attractive attributes, outdoor access, deterrents from unacceptable objects, and nail‐altering procedures have been suggested. These procedures range from basic nail trimming and covering to removal of the distal portion of the phalanges (Moesta et al. 2018). Onychectomy, or declawing, is still widely performed in the United States and Canada (Lockhart et al. 2014).
Onychectomy is controversial because it involves removal of the distal phalanges and has the potential for complications including hemorrhage and pain, claw regrowth, chronic draining tracts, radial nerve paralysis, infection, wound dehiscence or incomplete healing, protrusion or loss of the adjacent phalanx, and persistent lameness. Force plate analysis of cats following onychectomy has demonstrated abnormal gaits for at least 12 days post‐surgery, making appropriate anesthesia and analgesia imperative (Romans et al. 2005; Lockhart et al. 2014). Evidence of inadequate surgical technique was common in one study population (Martell‐Moran et al. 2017). The same study also strongly suggested that declawed cats are more likely to display other behavioral problems such as increased aggression, biting, and housesoiling.
2.6.6 Reproduction
Reproductive behaviors of the female cat, or queen, vary depending on the stage of her estrous cycle. High levels of estrogen are necessary for ovulation and initiation of estrus, or “heat” phase. As estrogen levels start to rise early in the cycle (proestrus), the queen shows courtship behaviors, such as increased activity and the appearance of a distinct estrus call vocalization. She also displays frequent rubbing of cheeks, head, flank, and back on various substrates as well as rolling and spraying urine to advertise her estrus status. Another defining queen behavior displayed during courtship is the lordosis posture—crouching with perineal area lifted vertically and back legs treading. Estrus behaviors occur regardless of a male cat’s presence. In the proestrus phase, the queen displays courtship behaviors but acts aggressively if the male (tom) cat tries to mount. She only becomes immobile and allows mounting and biting of the neck as she enters the estrus phase and estrogen levels rise. Felids are induced ovulators, meaning physical stimulation of the vagina is needed to trigger release of an egg from the ovary (Hart and Hart 2014b).
Tomcats are drawn to the estrus female via olfactory cues. His courtship behavior is a sequence of genital sniffing, displaying the gaping or flehmen response, and then using teeth to grasp the nape of the queen’s neck before mounting. The tom also treads his back legs during mounting and intercourse. The female reacts strongly at the time of intromission, likely a result of hyperstimulation or discomfort from the tomcat penile spines. She produces a loud shriek accompanied by dilated pupils and darting away from the male (Houpt 2018).
Natural mating behavior consists of frequent copulations (approximately every 10 minutes for several hours) of less than 1 minute. In a free‐ranging cat environment, this mating strategy provides an opportunity for multiple males to mate with a queen during estrus. Numerous toms surround the queen and try to displace each other during or between copulation. Thus, multiple paternity within litters is common. Estrus ends about two days post‐ovulation, but an unbred cat will cycle approximately every three weeks
