Imaginary Kingdom p. 87; Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations, iv part 2 p. 280.
46
Joseph F. Fletcher, ‘The Mongols: Ecological and Social Perspectives,’ in Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 46 (1986) pp. 11–50 (at p. 13), repr. in Fletcher, Studies on Chinese and Islamic Inner Asia.
47
For all these distinctions see (amid a vast literature) Cribb, Nomads esp. pp. 19–20, 84–112; Forde, Habitat p. 396; Johnson, Nature of Nomadism pp. 18–19; Blench, Pastoralism pp. 11–12; Helland, Five Essays.
48
R. & N. Dyson-Hudson ‘Nomadic Pastoralism,’ Annual Review of Anthropology 9 (1980) pp. 15–61.
49
Krader, Social Organisation pp. 282–283.
50
Barfield, Perilous Frontier pp. 22–23.
51
Jagchid & Hyer, Mongolia’s Culture pp. 20–26.
52
Barfield, Perilous Frontier pp. 23–24.
53
Elizabeth Bacon, ‘Types of Pastoral Nomadism in Central and South-West Asia,’ Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 10 (1954) pp. 44–68.
54
Lawrence Krader, ‘The Ecology of Central Asian Pastoralism,’ Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 11 (1955) pp. 301–326.
55
To say nothing of permafrost. Owen Lattimore established that near Yakutsk the permafrost penetrated the soil to a depth of 446 feet (Lattimore, Studies in Frontier History p. 459).
56
Barfield, Perilous Frontier p. 20.
57
D. L. Coppock, D. M. Swift and J. E. Elio, ‘Livestock Feeding Ecology and Resource Utilisation in a Nomadic Pastoral Ecosystem,’ Journal of Applied Ecology 23 (1986) рр. 573–583.
58
Lattimore, Mongol Journeys p. 165.
59
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 711.
60
V A. Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 20; Hyland, Medieval Warhorse p. 126.
61
Buell, Historical Dictionary p. 242.
62
Barfield, Perilous Frontier p. 21.
63
Dawson, The Mongol Mission pp. 98–100.
64
Richard, Simon de St Quentin pp. 40–41.
65
Buell, Historical Dictionary p. 156.
66
Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers p. 168; Mongol Journeys p. 198.
67
C. Buchholtz, ‘True Cattle (Genus Bos),’ in Parker, Grzimek’s Encyclopedia, v pp. 386–397; Mason, Evolution pp. 39–45; D. M. Leslie & G. M. Schaller, ‘Bos Grunniens and Bos Mutus,’ Mammalian Species 36 (2009) pp. 1–17.
68
Seth, From Heaven Lake p. 107.
69
Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 158; Yule & Cordier, The Book of Ser Marco Polo i pp. 277–279.
70
Burnaby, Ride; the tradition continues to this day. The noted traveller Tim Severin described a 400-strong herd as ‘a constantly bawling, groaning, squealing, defecating troop’ (Severin, In Search of Genghis Khan p. 22).
71
Bulliet, Camel p. 30.
72
Peter Grubb, ‘Order Artiodactyla,’ in Wilson & Reeder, Mammal Species (2005) i pp. 637–722; Irwin, Camel pp. tor, 143,161; Bulliet, Camel pp. 143, 227.
73
Irwin, Camel pp. 142–143; E. H. Schafer, ‘The Camel in China down to the Mongol Dynasty,’ Sinologica 2 (1950) pp. 165–194, 263–290.
74
Wilson & Reeder, Animal Species p. 645; Lattimore, Mongol Journeys pp. 147–163; Gavin Hanby, Central Asia p. 7; De Windt, From Pekin to Calais pp. 128–129; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches i pp. 150–151.
75
Irwin, Camel pp. 53, 176–177; De Windt, From Pekin pp. 109, 128; Hue, High Road in Tartary pp. 132–133.
76
Boyd & Houpt, Przewalski’s Horse. Whereas most wild horses are feral (previously domesticated), the Przewalski’s horse is truly wild (Tatjana Kavar & Peter Dove, ‘Domestication of the Horse; Genetic Relationships between Domestic and Wild Horses,’ Livestock Science 116 (2008) pp. 1–14; James Downs, ‘The Origin and Spread of Riding in the Near East and Central Asia,’ American Anthropologist 63 (1961) pp. 1193–1230).
77
Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers p. 168; White, Medieval Technology pp. 15–17.
