dissimilarity between Greek and Asian fighting was the emphasis of the former on blows to the head. In Asian systems, the body is considered to be the better target. This difference in emphasis might be explained by basic philosophic differences. The center of the Greek spirit was considered to be the head. Typical statues of Greek athletes depict a well-developed upper torso and a handsome face. The midsection is developed but is shown as a secondary feature. By contrast, statues of Asian temple guardians all show extremely well-developed and prominent abdomens. This may be attributed to the Oriental belief that the seika tanden, the "one point," located below the navel, is the center of the body.
Typical Greek boxing matches were not divided into rounds as in present-day boxing. Fights lasted until one fighter was knocked out or signaled defeat by raising his hand. (It is interesting to note that boxing may not have been practiced in Sparta, since one contestant would have to admit defeat, quite out of keeping with Spartan tradition.2 ) Since no ring was used, boxers could not corner an opponent and rely on infighting techniques. Therefore, the use of long range attacks, strong defensive positions, and the waiting out of the opponent came into play. This is very similar to a fight between karate enthusiasts, who traditionally wait to deliver the knockout blow. Indeed, a contest today between two high-ranked karate men may consist of several long periods of waiting followed by strong, vigorous attacks.
Roman boxing, incidentally, was less of a sport than a spectacle for popular amusement. The leaders of Rome felt that boxing was not an art that had practical military applications: far better if young warriors trained in the use of spear and sword. Boxing practice was left to the gladiators, who utilized a new, deadlier type of cestus, one with metal projections, that made the sport a bloody melee. As such, Roman boxing did not possess the skillful techniques or moral aspects of the Greek and Asian versions.
There existed in Greece another sport, known as the pankration, or "game of all powers," since at least 648 B.C., when it was instituted as an Olympic event.3 This sport developed as a combination of earlier forms of Greek boxing and wrestling. In it, any technique except eye-gouging and biting was permitted (although some city-states may have allowed even this). Kicking was common, and statues exist that show practitioners competing what in modern karate would be called the front kick. Other techniques permitted were straight punches, jumping kicks, and throws similar to the tomoe-nage, or "circle throw," of judo, a move in which the thrower grasps the opponent's lapels and while falling backward, presses his foot in his adversary's stomach and throws him over his head. On some pottery fragments can be seen a front kick that has been caught with the defender moving in to sweep the supporting leg with a throw similar to judo's o-uchi-gari (inner-leg hook). Pankration contests were held under strict supervision, the referees using a long rod to strike the fighter who violated the rules. It was this form of empty-handed Greek art that most closely resembled Asian karate.
The pankration was not considered to be a "gentleman's sport" in the same way that Greek boxing was. In Plato's Laws (c. 350 B.C.) it may be observed that the "upright posture" was highly regarded.4 Since the pankrationist had to leave his feet and assume the contrary poses in his fighting, Plato did not see the sport as beneficial to the correct development of young men. Indeed, he even criticized the use of such throwing and grappling techniques in the pankration by the fighters Antaeus and Cercyon as being useless in actual fighting and "unworthy of celebration." A young man should stand on his feet, not roll in the dust. This idea was a popular one and by the second century A.D. it was common to prohibit all wrestling techniques.
Some historians have discovered written evidence which, they claim, suggests that an early form of boxing existed in China. This ancient sport resembled more the pankration than the modern sport of boxing. E. Norman Gardiner mentions a boxing match between the marquis of Chin and the viscount of Chu in 631 B.C.5 Apparently, the techniques used were not limited to punches, but included kicks and throws.
Still another method of training young men, also similar to karate, existed in ancient Greece. In The Laws, Plato described a dance called the pyrrhic as a mock battle in which the performer simulated the attitudes of attack and defense. The emphasis was on correct form and good posture. The dance was used as a means to train young men for fighting, but whether or not this Greek art had any influence on the fighting techniques of Asia is a matter for speculation. However, the descriptions of the pyrrhic by Plato might well be used to describe the traditional karate kata, or formal exercise. One thing that may be noted is that the pankration and the pyrrhic both antedate the Indian statues.
Although the discussion above indicates the existence of karate-like fighting arts in Greece, it is quite difficult to make any definite or substantial connection with present day martial arts in the Far East. Since the Greeks did maintain control of portions of the Near East that border on India, it is possible that elements of those two arts may have been introduced into India at that time. However, most historians seem content to trace the art of karate to the Indian vajramushti system. Even that investigation is hampered by a lack of evidence. Indeed, information about the Indian origins of karate is found only in legend and oral tradition.
FROM INDIA TO CHINA
India and China have a common border, so it is quite possible that the Indian vajramushti system was transmitted to China along with Buddhism. However, empty-handed fighting systems existed in China prior to the introduction of Buddhism, and any connection between Indian and Chinese fighting systems is difficult to prove. An examination of the legends of Chinese Buddhist monasteries, however, does seem to indicate a link between the Indian arts and the Chinese style of weaponless fighting known as ch'uan-fa (lit., fist way).
Perhaps the best-known branch of Buddhism in the Western world is the Zen sect. Called Dhyana in Sanskrit and Chan in Chinese, its teachings stress meditation as the way to achieve enlightenment. The founder of the Chan school in China is a fascinating, semi-legendary figure by the name of Bodhidharma (Daruma Taishi in Japanese). The myriad tales of his adventures and accomplishments in China are part of the folk legends of that country and make it difficult to distinguish fact from fiction.
Bodhidharma was born in India as a member of the Kshatriya caste. He was the third son of King Sugandha and was the twenty-eighth patriarch of Indian Buddhism. His real name was Bodhitara, which was later changed to Bodhidharma by his Dhyana master, Prajnatara. Bodhidharma remained in India studying under Prajnatara until the master died. It was at that point that he set out for China. Upon his arrival there Bodhidharma was invited to the court of Emperor Wu in Nanjing. The emperor had already developed a great interest in Buddhism and told Bodhidharma of the many good deeds he had performed. He described in detail the many Buddhist temples he had constructed, the Buddhist scriptures he had ordered his scholars to copy, and the favors he had granted to monks and nuns. Apparently, he felt that these material accomplishments would bring him merit. The emperor thereupon asked of the sage the extent of the merit due him. Bodhidharma immediately replied, "None at all." At that the emperor was surprised. He then asked his guest what the First Principle of Buddhism was and received the reply "nothingness." Somewhat annoyed with the monk, the emperor asked Bodhidharma who he thought he was. Bodhidharma said, "I do not know," and left. The emperor, after contemplating the monk's behavior for a while, sent a messenger after him to request his return. The envoy caught up with Bodhidharma just in time to see him cross the Yangzi River, supposedly standing upright on a reed. The legend then states that Bodhidharma traveled north from there to Henan Province where he took up residence at the Shaolin monastery in Sung Shan and began teaching the tenets of Chan Buddhism to the monks. According to another story, it was at that temple that Bodhidharma sat facing a wall for nine years in silent meditation, a feat which caused his legs to atrophy.
Still another tale, popular in martial arts circles today, concerns the connection between Bodhidharma and the founding of the form of ch'uan-fa of the Shaolin monastery. According to the legend, Bodhidharma was attempting to teach Chan to the monks at the Shaolin temple, an endeavor which subjected them to long periods of meditation. Many of them were in poor physical condition and the vigorous training of Bodhidharma left them on the
