Geek in China. Matthew B. Christensen

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      The Chinese character fo for 'Buddha'.

      CHINA’S MANY RELIGIOUS AND PHILOSOPHICAL TRADITIONS

      There are two religious and philosophical traditions native to China: Confucianism and Taoism. Both have their beginnings in the 5th to 6th centuries BCE. Buddhism has also shaped Chinese culture. Elements of these are incorporated into folk religion and ancestor worship, which include respect for the forces of nature, ancestors, gods of human groups and figures from mythology.

      Confucianism is not only considered a religion and philosophy but also a worldview, social ethic, political ideology and scholarly tradition. Confucius (551–479 BCE) lived in a time of political turmoil, violence and social disintegration. He spent his life trying to persuade the leaders of the various kingdoms in China to try out his political reforms. These were really more about how to get along with others peacefully than about politics. To Confucius, politics meant moral persuasion. The core of Confucianism is thus humanistic, with particular emphasis on the importance of the family and social harmony. In particular, Confucian doctrine is based on the Five Relationships—reciprocal relationships that if adhered to bring peace and prosperity. Inferiors must be subject to superiors, but those superiors have a responsibility to care for their inferiors. The relationships emphasize respect by the younger for the older and by women for men. But there is a responsibility on both sides that are mutually beneficial.

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      BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CONFUCIANISM

      Benevolence (ren) 仁

      Also described as human-heartedness, this carries the idea of being kind and respectful to others. The supreme moral achievement in life is excellence of character, to become a gentleman.

      The Gentleman (junzi) 君子

      The ultimate individual (‘superior person’) attains nobility through character rather than inheritance.

      Filial Piety (xiao)

      This refers to unquestioned loyalty and respect for elders, especially parents and grandparents.

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      The character for filial piety (xiao).

      THE VALUE OF EDUCATION

      To Confucius, the purpose of government was not only to provide food and protection but also to educate. Education became a serious focus of Confucian thought. By 50 BCE, enrollment in the state university was 3,000, but by 1 CE all bureaucratic positions in the government were staffed by those with a Confucian education. In the year 58 CE, all government schools were required to make sacrifices to Confucius. Toward the end of the Han Dynasty, up to 30,000 students attended the Imperial University and a Confucian temple eventually stood in all of China’s 2,000 counties.

      The curriculum for a Confucian education comprised the Five Classics and Four Books (see pages 18–19). These nine books espoused Confucian thought and practices. The Five Classics are said to have been compiled by Confucius himself, whereas the Four Books were compiled by his disciples.

      This Confucian education system began in the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) and was in place until the early part of the 20th century. What this means is that anyone who was educated in China was thoroughly familiar with Confucian ideals and practices.

      THE FIVE CONFUCIAN RELATIONSHIPS

      Ruler to subject If a ruler is kind and cares about his subjects, the people, in turn, will be loyal.

      Father to son If a father cares for his son and treats him well, his son will be obedient and want to care for his father.

      Elder brother to younger brother If an elder brother treats his younger brother with kindness, the younger brother will respect the elder.

      Husband to wife If a husband takes care of his wife, she will, in turn, be loyal to him.

      Friend to friend Friends treat each other with mutual respect and kindness.

      Confucius believed that if we treat each other with respect and dignity, then everyone will benefit. He advocated self-cultivation. If you want to change society, you must begin by changing yourself. Your actions will then influence those around you and extend from your immediate community to the city, to the state and, eventually, to the whole country.

      TAOISM

      Taoist thought pervades Chinese society. At the core of Taoism, which links Confucian tradition with folk traditions, is a book regarded by many as scripture, the Dao De Jing (Tao Te Ching) (Classic of the Way and Virtue). Tradition has it that it was written by Laozi (‘the old one’), but in fact scholars are unsure who the author is. It was originally meant as a handbook for rulers. Ideal Taoism describes a sage whose actions are so unnoticed that his very existence is unsure. The term dao, meaning ‘way’, has been used by all other religious and philosophical traditions in China, including Confucianism and Buddhism.

      Taoism is all about the natural order of things. In fact, civilization is a corruption of the natural order, thus reform for the Taoist is to look to the past and the ideals established then. It is about maintaining balance and order according to natural laws. Taoism emphasizes spontaneity and non-interference by letting things take their natural course.

      Taoism is sometimes regarded as passive and lacking in strength and vigor. But the Taoist would respond by using the analogy of water. Though water seems weak (not hard), it carves great canyons in the earth by following a natural course.

      Taiwan has a thriving Taoist community with Taoist temples dotting the island. Religious Taoism was suppressed by the Communists in mainland China when they came to power, but in recent years there has been a surge in interest in and tolerance for Chinese religions in the country, among them Taoism.

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      A priest conducting a Taoist rite at a temple. Taoism is one of five religions officially recognized by China.

      PRINCIPLES OF TAOISM: HARMONY YIN AND YANG

      Yin refers to darkness and yang to light. They represent harmony in the universe, that everything has an opposite force. They are not considered positive or negative but complimentary, independent forces. A fruitful and happy life lies in having a proper balance of all things, such as food, exercise and sleep.

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      Virtue (de) 德

      Taoists seek virtue in their life. It is a passive power that never lays claim to achievements. It is an inner strength and confidence.

      Non-action (wu wei) 无为

      The Dao De Jing says, ‘The man of superior virtue never acts, and yet there is nothing he leaves undone.’ It does not imply there is no action, but that the actions are so in tune with the natural order of things that the author leaves no trace of himself.

      ANCIENT PRACTICES OF ANCESTOR WORSHIP AND FOLK RELIGION

      Confucius

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