Sticks—represented by a symbol similar to a swastica.
Wraparound Skirt—earliest skirt worn by woman, consisting of straight piece of material wrapped around the lower part of the body from right to left in front, then across the back from left to right, allowing the surplus to cross the front again and to be tucked under the top of the skirt. Pl. I, 2.
Zapato—shoe worn in Mexico and Guatemala.
Egypt
CHRONOLOGY
PREDYNASTIC PERIODS (c. 5000-3700 B.C.): Introduction of calendar, c. 4241.
ANCIENT KINGDOM (Dynasties I-X): Dynasties I-II, c. 3700-3150 B.C.: The two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt united under rule of Menes. Writing used. Arts and crafts developed. Pharaoh deified in life and death. Old Kingdom, Dynasties III-V, c. 3150-2600 B.C.: Arts and crafts highly developed. Excellent painters and sculptors. Stone architecture, erection of colossal pyramids. Literature flourished. First Intermediate Period, Dynasties VI-X, c. 2600-2300 B.C.: Breaking up of kingdom, decline of arts and crafts.
MIDDLE KINGDOM (Dynasties XI-XVII): Dynasties XI-XII, c. 2300-1927 B.C.: First Theban Dynasties, feudal period, revival of militarism, great prosperity, high development in the arts and crafts; classical age of Egyptian literature. Temple builders. Second Intermediate Period, Dynasties XIII-XVII, c. 1927-1580 B.C.: Disunion, invasion of Hyksos. Horse introduced by invaders.
NEW KINGDOM (Dynasties XVIII-XXX): Dynasties XVIII-XIX, c. 1580-1200 B.C.: Great prosperity of Theban Dynasties. Foreign conquests, period of cultural advance, Temple of Luxor. Dynasty XX, c. 1200-1090 B.C. Dynasty XXI, c. 1090-945 B.C.: Priest kings at Thebes. Dynasty XXII-XXIV, c. 945-750 B.C.: Egyptianized Libyan settlers, kings of Egypt. Dynasty XXV, c. 750-661 B.C.: Conquest of Egypt by Assyria. Dynasty XXVI, c. 661-525 B.C.: Saite Period. Dynasty XXVII, c. 525-404 B.C.: Persian Period. Dynasties XXVIII-XXX, 464-332 B.C.
PTOLEMAIC PERIOD (332-20 B.C.) Cleopatra committed suicide, 30 B.C.
CHAPTER 2
Egypt
HISTORY
Adearth of rain forced the prehistoric ancestors of the Egyptians to desert the plains on either side of the Upper Nile. For thousands of years the watershed had provided a rich country, but when game became scarce due to lack of rainfall, these people abandoned the life of the hunter, became agriculturists and settled down in the lower valley of the Nile. Since that time the Egyptians have been greatly influenced by this river.
The Egyptians made such progress in civilization that by 3500 B.C. they were producing stone vessels, decorated pottery, figurines carved of bone or ivory, or modeled in clay, and woven linen cloth. Finally, metal tools came into general use.
Economic developments also advanced political progress. Formerly divided among many small states, the people of Egypt now formed two clearly defined kingdoms—the Kingdom of Upper Egypt in the Nile valley in the south; and the Kingdom of Lower Egypt in the Delta at the north.
About 3000 B.C., after bitter wars, the powerful but backward people of the South and those of the northern kingdom united as a nation composed of nobles, the masses, and slaves, under rule of the first supreme pharaoh, Menes. King Menes moved his capital from the South to a few miles above the Delta, and the city was named Memphis.
Our rich knowledge of this important country is due to the Nile valley’s dry climate, which has preserved materials for 3000 to 4000 years. Even the texture and color of fabrics and paints have remained intact through the centuries.
The Old Kingdom covering ten dynasties was followed by the Middle Kingdom consisting of Dynasties XI-XVII. The gigantic pyramids were a product of the Fourth Dynasty. The Middle Kingdom was the classic period of Egyptian history in which literature and poetry, sculpture, and architecture flourished. There were Semitic invasions, and the effects were reflected in art and dress after the fall of Dynasty XII.
The New Kingdom and the Late Period, embracing Dynasties XVIII-XXX, had a brilliant beginning but not so glorious an end. At the height of prosperity during the time of Rameses II many great temples were built; but in 525 B.C. Egypt met defeat from the Persians, and in 332 B.C. was conquered by Alexander the Great of Macedonia. Upon the latter’s death, Ptolemy, a Macedonian general, was made governor and for almost three hundred years the country was ruled by his descendants. The last of the Ptolemies was Cleopatra, the best known queen in Egyptian history. Roman rule followed for nearly five hundred years. Since that time the Arabs, Turks, French, and English, in turn, have ruled Egypt.
The Egyptian believed that in his future existence life would continue and he would enjoy all of the comforts he had known in his stay on earth. For that reason a permanent abiding place, huge and awe-inspiring, was erected for the dead and the body was preserved by mummification. Scenes depicting everyday life in the field and in the papyrus swamp, and every known trade and occupation, were portrayed on the walls of the tombs. These familiar scenes showed the brewer, the baker, the potter, and the scribe.
The costumes of men and women were similar during the Old and Middle Kingdoms. The style of dress showed the wearer’s wealth and importance. In the New Kingdom, beginning with Dynasty XVIII, changes in costume occurred as a result of commercial interests and contacts with other peoples. Among these changes were the innovation of the shirt; and many variations of skirts, one type shorter in front than in the back, another type looped up to show the pleated inner skirt, and another with a full pleated skirt.
Mirrors of highly polished metal aided the beauty-conscious lady of the Nile in applying powder, rouge to the lips, and paint to the eyelids and corners of the eyes in order to enhance their brilliance and to make them appear longer. The male likewise was particular about his appearance. The slave applied unguents to the master’s face and then shaved him with a bronze blade, ground very sharp with emery and stropped with soft ox-skin. The length of the beard indicated his station in life. It was the king who set the fashion for men in dress.
The king had to acknowledge his wife as his equal, if not his superior. Egyptian history includes queens who were great leaders. The woman of Egypt enjoyed social freedom and achieved legal advantage. She fought on the battlefield, entered alliances, and exerted much power. The Egyptian woman could hold property, a wife had complete control of the joint estates. A man was responsible for any irregular conduct of his wife. In the later years of Egyptian civilization when life became more secure the woman of a wealthy family was not permitted to work nor to fight. The position of woman became subordinate as is usual in a military society. There were two types of marriages: one without a full written contract, another with a full written contract. The latter included a dowry and the contract mentioned conditions in regard to property in case the marriage would be dissolved.
Various tasks occupied the men. In the palace there were wig-makers, sandalmakers, perfumers and special officials in charge of cosmetics. In the towns and cities, there were merchants, ceramists, jewelers, coppersmiths, and professional writers or scribes. Agriculture and weaving were important occupations.
In November, 1922, after Lord Carnavon and Howard Carter made the spectacular discovery and excavation of the tomb of Tutankhamen, the fashion world showed how much archaeological finds may affect costume. Shops were flooded with Egyptian-style textiles and costume jewelry, and dresses were draped in Cleopatra-like fashion. These influences continue to invade present-day styles from time to time.
