Chicken. Paul R. Josephson

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pay and will pay for remediation. Greater and greater awareness of these costs and problems dates to the middle of the twentieth century.

      If chickens left the forests of Southeast Asia millennia ago to enter the human world of domestication, then they have taken flight again as products of multinational corporations. Chickens – dressed, processed, cut-up, wrapped, frozen and so on – are an international commodity. One in five bits (or pieces, or kilograms) of chicken is exported somewhere, often thousands of kilometers away. Global sales of fresh chicken shipments reached $6.6 billion in 2018, and frozen-chicken international sales were $16.1 billion. In chapter 6, we examine international trade and several of the major countries’ industries and producers. Trade is based as always on domestic production and policies, and on international rivalries and demands. Russia and the US are having a fowl war. They are not alone in battles over tariffs and imports. And international trade also involves great risks of introducing or reintroducing highly pathogenic Avian Influenza A (H5N1) to uninfected countries. Whence are your chicken nuggets and wings?

      1 1. Hatte wohl Hunger,ass noch ein Hühnchenmit meinen Händenund merkte beim Hühnchenessen,dass ich ein kaltes und totesHühnchen ass.

      2 2. Compassion in World Farming, “The Life of: Broiler Chickens,” CWF, January 5, 2013, at www.ciwf.org.uk/media/5235306/The-life-of-Broiler-chickens.pdf.

      3 3. David Kritchevsky, “History of Recommendations to the Public about Dietary Fat,” The Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 128, no. 2 (February 1998), pp. 449S–452S.

      4 4. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, World Agriculture: Towards 2015/2030 – An FAO Perspective, Section 3.3. Livestock Commodities, at www.fao.org/3/y4252e/y4252e0.htm.

      5 5. My deepest thanks to Donald Worster who sent me lengthy comments on an early version of this book in a long email of June 24, 2019. He noted pointedly the importance of considering the capitalist essence of industrial food production, as well as the importance of considering the consumer as a major actor. Please see his Dust Bowl (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979) for a discussion of how technology, agricultural knowledge and the capitalist impulse came together to create the Dust Bowl. “Drought” alone as a cause of the Dust Bowl is a superficial explanation.

      6 6. William Lippincott, Poultry Production (Philadelphia and New York: Lea & Febiger, 1914), pp. 20–6.

      7 7. Lippincott, Poultry Production, pp. 32–4.

      8 8. Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production, Putting Meat on the Table: Industrial Farm Production in America (Philadelphia: Pew, 2008), p. 5.

      9 9. James MacDonald and William McBride, The Transformation of Livestock Agriculture: Scale, Efficiency and Risks, Economic Research Service Information Bulletin 43 (Washington, DC: USDA, January 2009), p. 6.

      10 10. William Boyd, “Making Meat: Science, Technology, and American Poultry Production,” Technology and Culture, vol. 42, no. 4 (Oct. 2001), p. 634.

      11 11. MacDonald and McBride, The Transformation of Livestock Agriculture, pp. 2–3.

      12 12. MacDonald and McBride, The Transformation of Livestock Agriculture, pp. 2–3.

      13 13. MacDonald and McBride, The Transformation of Livestock Agriculture, p. 6.

      14 14. MacDonald and McBride, The Transformation of Livestock Agriculture, p. 6.

      15 15. Judy A. Mills and Christopher Servheen, “The Asian Trade in Bears and Bear Parts: Impacts and Conservation Recommendations,” in Bears: Their Biology and Management, vol. IX, part 1: A Selection of Papers from the Ninth International Conference on Bear Research and Management, Missoula, Montana, February 23–28, 1992 (1994), pp. 161–7.

      16 16. Kaitlyn-Elizabeth Foley, Carrie Stengel and Chris Shepherd, Pills, Powders, Vials and Flakes: The Bear Bile Trade in Asia (Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia: TRAFFIC Southeast Asia, 2011), p. v.

      17 17. Simon Denyer, “China’s Bear Bile Industry Persists Despite Growing Awareness of the Cruelty Involved,” Washington Post, June 3, 2018, at www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/from-hemorrhoids-to-hangovers-bears-bile-is-treasured-in-china-and-thats-bad-for-captive-bears/2018/06/02/fdb431da-5363-11e8-b00a-17f9fda3859b_story.html.

      18 18. E. Livingstone, L. Gomez and J. Bouhuys, “A Review of Bear Farming and Bear Trade in Lao People’s Democratic Republic,” Global Ecology and Conservation, vol. 13 (January 2018), at www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989417302615.

      19 19. European Parliament, “Farming of Bear Bile in China,” January 17, 2006, at www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P6-TA-2006-0008+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN&language=EN.

      20 20. Rachel Nuwer, “Asia’s Illegal Wildlife Trade Makes Tigers a Farm-to-Table Meal,” New York Times, June 5, 2017, at www.nytimes.com/2017/06/05/science/animal-farms-southeast-asia-endangered-animals.html.

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